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76-458: When a sink becomes clogged, a person will often resort to using a chemical drain cleaner or a plunger , though most professional plumbers will remove the clog with a drain auger (often called a " plumber's snake "). The washstand was a bathroom sink made in the United States in the late 18th century. The washstands were small tables on which were placed a pitcher and a deep bowl, following

152-650: A dry cleaning solvent , providing an alternative to the traditional chlorine -containing perchloroethylene (perc) solvent. The use of silicones in dry cleaning reduces the environmental effect of a typically high-polluting industry. Electronic components are sometimes encased in silicone to increase stability against mechanical and electrical shock, radiation and vibration, a process called "potting". Silicones are used where durability and high performance are demanded of components under extreme environmental conditions, such as in space (satellite technology). They are selected over polyurethane or epoxy encapsulation when

228-471: A silicone or polysiloxane is a polymer composed of repeating units of siloxane ( −O−R 2 Si−O−SiR 2 − , where R = organic group ). They are typically colorless oils or rubber -like substances. Silicones are used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants, medicine, cooking utensils, thermal insulation, and electrical insulation. Some common forms include silicone oil , grease , rubber , resin , and caulk . Alfred Stock and Carl Somiesky examined

304-536: A clockwise direction and drive it into a pipe. Electric drain cleaners are commonly available with cable lengths of up to 40 metres and can go as far as 80 metres. Advantages of electric drain cleaners include the ability to clean long sections of sewer drain, the ability to remove solid objects such as tree roots and jewelry, and ready availability through hardware stores and tool rental counters. Machines using springs can easily negotiate multiple 90-degree bends while maintaining their effectiveness and without damaging

380-470: A greater need to conserve water), but this theory is now contested. It is more likely the two sinks had different roles within the household. But that difference usually does not exist in the modern era, and both sinks are now shallow. The primary difference both in the past and today between a Belfast and London sink is that the Belfast sink is fitted with an overflow weir which prevented water from spilling over

456-442: A handheld drain auger is pushed into a drain while the operator rotates a drum that anchors the cable. Similar to handheld augers, drain rods can be used for clearing blockages in long, straight runs of pipe. Many handheld augers have cables which are thin enough to pass through common sink traps, but manufacturers do not recommend using handheld drain augers in toilets because of their potential to scratch ceramic surfaces. Instead,

532-449: A hole for the larger root cutting nozzle. Root-cutter nozzles are designed to cut roots with a spinning nozzle that shoots a jet stream horizontally inside the pipe. High pressure sewer jetters with root-cutting nozzles can clear a hole through the center of a root-infested sewer line and with its rear-facing jet streams cut the roots and clean the pipe walls, flushing the root debris through the sewer line. The sewer jetter has been labeled as

608-514: A liquid or vapor onto other components. Silicone contamination of electrical switch contacts can lead to failures by causing an increase in contact resistance, often late in the life of the contact, well after any testing is completed. Use of silicone-based spray products in electronic devices during maintenance or repairs can cause later failures. Silicone foam has been used in North American buildings in an attempt to firestop openings within

684-429: A lower risk of scratching plumbing fixtures. Truck and trailer-mounted sewer jetters used by municipalities and larger service companies benefit from the high hydraulic horsepower delivered by powerful displacement pumps and so can remove tree roots and other solid obstructions. Advantages of sewer jetters include the relative ease of penetrating long sewer lines and the ability to remove residue that accumulates along

760-430: A nozzle that uses hydraulic force to pull the line into sewer drains, clean the sides of pipes, and flush out residue. High-pressure sewer jetters can be mounted on trolleys, inside vans or on trailers. The power of a sewer jetter ranges from 1,000 psi (68 atm) to 5,000 psi (340 atm). Sewer jetter nozzles come in different sizes and applications; a bullet-type nozzle with a streamlined profile can clear

836-690: A person, device, or product used to unblock sewer pipes or clear clogged wastewater drains. This term typically applies to chemical, enzymatic, or mechanical tools such as commercial chemical cleaners, plumber’s snakes, drain augers, bio-enzyme solutions, or toilet plungers. In some contexts, it may also refer to a plumber or professional who specializes in drain cleaning and maintenance. Chemical drain cleaners , plungers , handheld drain augers , and air burst drain cleaners are typically used to address clogs in single drain, such as sinks, toilets, tubs, or shower drains. These tools are effective at removing soft obstructions like hair and grease that accumulate near

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912-645: A plunger, and in contrast to drain augers do not risk scratching the ceramic surfaces of sinks, bathtubs and toilets. Disadvantages of air burst drain cleaners include a limited cleaning range in pipes that do not contain standing water and, in general, ineffectiveness for unclogging blocked main sewer drains. Safety considerations for air burst drain cleaners include a requirement to wear eye protection and, when using an air burst cleaner that uses compressed gas cartridges, careful handling of unused cartridges. Hydro-mechanical drain cleans use high-pressure water to break up obstructions and flush these smaller particles down

988-456: A requirement to wear protective gloves and eye protection, to avoid contact with sewer drain fluids, and to ensure that the jetter nozzle operates only inside the sewer pipe. Furthermore, larger truck- and trailer-mounted units that operate with sufficient power to cut tree roots require extensive training and strict adherence to manufacturers' safety guidelines to avoid serious injury. Silicone In organosilicon and polymer chemistry ,

1064-750: A special closet auger (from " water closet ") should be used. Advantages of handheld drain augers include low relative cost and ready availability of these tools in hardware stores. However, drawbacks include a reach that is normally limited to 25 feet (7.6 m), and the potential for the twisting cable to scratch the ceramic surfaces of plumbing fixtures. They are also only effective on small-diameter pipes (40–50 millimetres (1.6–2.0 in)) rather than main sewer pipes (110 millimetres (4.3 in)). Safety considerations include protective gloves and eye protection, and practicing good hygiene after coming into contact with drain fluids. Air burst drain cleaners use accelerated carbon dioxide, air or other gas to rupture

1140-564: A technological advancement of the plumber's snake (also known as an electric eel) drain clearing method. Portable sewer jetters and pressure washer sewer jetter attachments are primarily used by service personnel and homeowners to remove soft obstructions throughout the length of a building's sewer drain and to prevent the recurrence of clogs by cleaning the sides of drain pipes and flushing out residue. Pressure washer sewer jetter attachments are generally lower in cost and weight than electric drain cleaners with an equivalent reach, and can present

1216-594: A vessel sink), which has become fashionable for wealthy homeowners. Stone sinks have been used for ages. Some of the more popular stones used are: marble, travertine, onyx, granite, and soap stone on high end sinks. Glass, concrete, and terrazzo sinks are usually designed for their aesthetic appeal and can be obtained in a wide variety of unusual shapes and colors such as floral shapes. Concrete and terrazzo are occasionally also used in very-heavy-duty applications such as janitorial sinks. Self-rimming ( top-mount ) sinks sit in appropriately shaped holes roughly cut in

1292-443: A waterborne formulation using a silane's reactivity and penetration ability into a mineral-based surface can be combined with water-beading properties from a siloxane to produce a more-useful surface protection product. As a low-taint, non-toxic material, silicone can be used where contact with food is required. Silicone is becoming an important product in the cookware industry, particularly bakeware and kitchen utensils . Silicone

1368-535: A wide operating temperature range is required (−65 to 315 °C). Silicones also have the advantage of little exothermic heat rise during cure, low toxicity, good electrical properties, and high purity. Silicones are often components of thermal pastes used to improve heat transfer from power-dissipating electronic components to heat sinks . The use of silicones in electronics is not without problems, however. Silicones are relatively expensive and can be attacked by certain solvents. Silicone easily migrates as either

1444-663: Is derived by hydrolysis of dimethyldichlorosilane . This dichloride reacts with water as follows: n   Si ( CH 3 ) 2 Cl 2 + n   H 2 O ⟶ [ Si ( CH 3 ) 2 O ] n + 2 n   HCl {\displaystyle n\ {\ce {Si(CH3)2Cl2}}+n\ {\ce {H2O -> [Si(CH3)2O]}}_{n}+2n\ {\ce {HCl}}} The polymerization typically produces linear chains capped with Si−Cl or Si−OH ( silanol ) groups. Under different conditions,

1520-460: Is exposed at the hole created for the sink (and so must be a carefully finished edge rather than a rough cut). The sink is then clamped to the bottom of the material from below. Especially for bottom-mount sinks, silicone -based sealants are usually used to assure a waterproof joint between the sink and the countertop material. Advantages of an undermount sink include superior ergonomics and a contemporary look; disadvantages include extra cost in both

1596-412: Is paramount for passenger safety in the aerospace industry, so each component on an aircraft requires high-performance materials. Specially developed aerospace grades of silicone are stable from −70 to 220 °C , these grades can be used in the construction of gaskets for windows and cabin doors. During operation, aircraft go through large temperature fluctuations in a relatively short period of time; from

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1672-505: Is sometimes used in automotive intake systems (especially for engines with forced induction ). Sheet silicone is used to manufacture gaskets used in automotive engines , transmissions , and other applications. Automotive body manufacturing plants and paint shops avoid silicones, as trace contamination may cause "fish eyes", which are small, circular craters which mar a smooth finish. Additionally, silicone compounds such as silicone rubber are used as coatings and sealants for airbags ;

1748-493: Is that, being made of thin metal, they tend to be noisier than most other sink materials, although better sinks apply a heavy coating of vibration-damping material to the underside of the sink. Enamel over cast iron is a popular material for kitchen and bathroom sinks. Heavy and durable, these sinks can also be manufactured in a very wide range of shapes and colors. Like stainless steel, they are very resistant to hot or cold objects, but they can be damaged by sharp impacts and once

1824-438: Is the process of shooting high powered streams of water through the drain, down into the sewer in order to blast away any debris blocking the passage of water. This is more effective than using a snake, blades, or even drain rods because, first the water is shot at such a high intensity that the force isn't even comparable to manual labour, secondly the water is much more capable of bending around curved or angular pipes to reach all

1900-701: Is used as an insulator in heat-resistant potholders and similar items; however, it is more conductive of heat than similar less dense fiber-based products. Silicone oven gloves are able to withstand temperatures up to 260 °C (500 °F), making it possible to reach into boiling water. Other products include molds for chocolate, ice, cookies, muffins, and various other foods; non-stick bakeware and reusable mats used on baking sheets; steamers , egg boilers or poachers ; cookware lids, pot holders , trivets , and kitchen mats. Silicones are used as active compounds in defoamers due to their low water solubility and good spreading properties. Liquid silicone can be used as

1976-426: Is used in microfluidics , seals, gaskets, shrouds, and other applications requiring high biocompatibility . Additionally, the gel form is used in bandages and dressings, breast implants , testicle implants, pectoral implants, contact lenses , and a variety of other medical uses. Scar treatment sheets are often made of medical grade silicone due to its durability and biocompatibility. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)

2052-466: The −Si−O− chain lengths, side groups, and crosslinking , silicones can be synthesized with a wide variety of properties and compositions. They can vary in consistency from liquid to gel to rubber to hard plastic. The most common siloxane is linear polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a silicone oil . The second-largest group of silicone materials is based on silicone resins , which are formed by branched and cage-like oligosiloxanes. F. S. Kipping coined

2128-697: The Art Institute of Chicago became the first building to receive exterior glass fixed only with the material. Silicone membranes have been used to cover and restore industrial roofs, thanks to its extreme UV resistance, and ability to keep their waterproof performance for decades. Silicone rubber can be 3D printed (liquid deposition modelling, LDM) using pump-nozzle extrusion systems. Unfortunately, standard silicone formulations are optimized to be used by extrusion and injection moulding machines and are not applicable in LDM-based 3D printing. The rheological behavior and

2204-493: The additive manufacturing of polymer derived ceramics by stereolithography techniques. Silicones exhibit many useful characteristics, including: Silicone can be developed into rubber sheeting, where it has other properties, such as being FDA compliant. This extends the uses of silicone sheeting to industries that demand hygiene, for example, food and beverage, and pharmaceuticals. Silicones are used in many products. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry lists

2280-427: The automotive field, silicone grease is typically used as a lubricant for brake components since it is stable at high temperatures, is not water-soluble, and is far less likely than other lubricants to foul. DOT 5 brake fluids are based on liquid silicones. Automotive spark plug wires are insulated by multiple layers of silicone to prevent sparks from jumping to adjacent wires, causing misfires. Silicone tubing

2356-445: The hydrolysis of dichlorosilane , a reaction that was proposed to initially give the monomer H 2 SiO : SiH 2 Cl 2 + H 2 O ⟶ H 2 SiO + 2 HCl {\displaystyle {\ce {SiH2Cl2 + H2O -> H2SiO + 2 HCl}}} When the hydrolysis is performed by treating a solution of H 2 SiCl 2 in benzene with water,

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2432-520: The pot life need to be adjusted. 3D printing also requires the use of a removable support material that is compatible with the silicone rubber. Silicone films can be applied to such silica-based substrates as glass to form a covalently bonded hydrophobic coating. Such coatings were developed for use on aircraft windshields to repel water and to preserve visibility, without requiring mechanical windshield wipers which are impractical at supersonic speeds. Similar treatments were eventually adapted to

2508-451: The English tradition. Sometimes the table had a hole where the large bowl rested, which led to the making of dry sinks. From about 1820 to 1900, the dry sink evolved by the addition of a wooden cabinet with a trough built on the top, lined with zinc or lead. This is where the bowls or buckets for water were kept. Splashboards were sometimes added to the back wall, as well as shelves and drawers,

2584-494: The London sink and the Belfast sink. In 2006, both types of sinks usually were 61 centimetres (24 in) across and 46 centimetres (18 in) front-to-back, with a depth of 22.5 centimetres (8.9 in). London sinks were originally shallower than Belfast sinks. (One plumbing guide in 1921 suggested that the Belfast sink was 38 centimetres (15 in) deep.) Some believe this was because London had less access to fresh water (and thus

2660-557: The aircraft. As silicone rubber has exceptional noise reduction and anti-vibration properties, it can be formed into small components and fitted into small gaps ensuring all equipment can be protected from unwanted vibration such as overhead lockers, vent ducts, hatches, entertainment system seals, and LED lighting systems. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) based binders along with ammonium perchlorate (NH 4 ClO 4 ) are used as fast burning solid propellants in rockets. The strength and reliability of silicone rubber are widely acknowledged in

2736-568: The ambient temperatures when on the ground in hot countries to sub-zero temperatures when flying at high altitude. Silicone rubber can be molded with tight tolerances ensuring gaskets form airtight seals both on the ground and in the air, where atmospheric pressure decreases. Silicone rubber's resistance to heat corrosion enables it to be used for gaskets in aircraft engines where it will outlast other types of rubber, both improving aircraft safety and reducing maintenance costs. The silicone acts to seal instrument panels and other electrical systems in

2812-458: The atmosphere and rainwater, as well as cement, runoff, etc. Once corrosion occurred down to the base metal, porous plaques and rust would form, leading to sediment build-up that would gradually clog these drains. The problems with corroding galvanized iron pipes eventually led to their replacement by copper or plastic (PVC) piping by the 1960s. Natural substances such as hair, grease, or other oils continued to be an issue in drain clogs, encouraging

2888-440: The automotive market in products marketed by Rain-X and others. Many fabrics can be coated or impregnated with silicone to form a strong, waterproof composite such as silnylon . A silicone polymer can be suspended in water by using stabilizing surfactants. This allows water-based formulations to be used to deliver many ingredients that would otherwise require a stronger solvent, or be too viscous to use effectively. For example,

2964-410: The clog membrane. Accelerated gas creates a force on standing water that can dislodge clogs that accumulate close to drain openings. Advantages of air burst drain cleaners include the potential to immediately clear clogs and slow-running drains, in contrast to chemical cleaners that can take more time to work. Air burst cleaners can dislodge obstructions that are further away from drain openings than can

3040-459: The cockpit, protecting printed circuit boards from the risks of extreme altitude such as moisture and extremely low temperature. Silicone can be used as a sheath to protect wires and electrical components from any dust or ice that may creep into a plane's inner workings. As the nature of air travel results in much noise and vibration, powerful engines, landings, and high speeds all need to be considered to ensure passenger comfort and safe operation of

3116-449: The construction industry. One-part silicone sealants and caulks are in common use to seal gaps, joints and crevices in buildings. One-part silicones cure by absorbing atmospheric moisture, which simplifies installation. In plumbing, silicone grease is typically applied to O-rings in brass taps and valves, preventing lime from sticking to the metal. Structural silicone has also been used in curtain wall building façades since 1974 when

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3192-415: The countertop (or substrate material) using a jigsaw or other cutter appropriate to the material at hand. They are suspended by their rim which forms a fairly close seal with the top surface of the worktop. If necessary, this seal can be enhanced by clamping the sink from below the worktop. Bottom-mount or under-mount sinks are installed below the countertop surface. The edge of the countertop material

3268-402: The development of chemical drain cleaners as well as mechanical tools to clear drains. These commercial products usually contain corrosive acids or alkalis to unclog organic materials, including proteins , lipids and carbohydrates . Handheld drain augers are typically designed to clean portions of a drain within 25 feet (7.6 m) of the drain opening. The springy, flexible cable of

3344-507: The drain inlet. However, excessive use of chemical drain cleaners can lead to pipe damage. In contrast, enzymatic drain cleaners rely on natural enzymes to break down organic matter such as grease, hair, and food particles, offering a more environmentally friendly solution that avoids harsh chemicals. If more than one plumbing fixture is clogged then electric drain cleaners , battery powered drain cleaners, sewer jetters or such mechanical devices are usually required to clear obstructions along

3420-444: The drain. Most municipal building codes mandate that drain plumbing increase in diameter as it moves closer to the municipal sewer system. i.e., most kitchen sinks evacuate water with a 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 -inch drain pipe, which feeds into a larger 4-inch drain pipe on the main plumbing stack before heading to a septic tank or to the city sewage system. This means that, barring intrusion by tree roots or other debris into buried piping,

3496-467: The early 20th century. Prior to this time, Americans often discarded the dirty water collected in basins after use. Limited piping systems gradually developed with lead materials, but after WWI when the poisonous properties of lead became more well-known, piping was reconstructed with galvanized iron. Galvanized iron is actually steel covered in a protective layer of zinc, but it was soon discovered that this zinc layer naturally corroded due to exposure to

3572-431: The early days of sinks, and baths were made from natural teak with no additional finishing. Teak is chosen because of its natural waterproofing properties – it has been used for hundreds of years in the marine industry for this reason. Teak also has natural antiseptic properties, which is a bonus for its use in baths and sinks. Glass sinks: A current trend in bathroom design is the handmade glass sink (often referred to as

3648-628: The end of a siloxane chain. When silicone is burned in air or oxygen, it forms solid silica ( silicon dioxide , SiO 2 ) as a white powder, char, and various gases. The readily dispersed powder is sometimes called silica fume . The pyrolysis of certain polysiloxanes under an inert atmosphere is a valuable pathway towards the production of amorphous silicon oxycarbide ceramics, also known as polymer derived ceramics . Polysiloxanes terminated with functional ligands such as vinyl , mercapto or acrylate groups have been cross linked to yield preceramic polymers , which can be photopolymerised for

3724-487: The entire length of the drain piping system, that is, from fixture drain inlets through the main building drains and lateral piping outside the building to the collector sewer mains. The history of drain cleaners parallels the development of common drain systems themselves. As a result, there is not an extensive history of cleaners in the US, as municipal plumbing systems were not readily available in middle-class American homes until

3800-409: The fire-resistance-rated wall and floor assemblies to prevent the spread of flames and smoke from one room to another. When properly installed, silicone-foam firestops can be fabricated for building code compliance. Advantages include flexibility and high dielectric strength. Disadvantages include combustibility (hard to extinguish) and significant smoke development. Silicone-foam firestops have been

3876-451: The firing process. There are high fire clays and glazes which are heated to over 1200 °C (2200 °F) and are extremely resistant to fading, staining, burning, scratching and acid attack. Low fire clays, fired below 1200 °C, most often used by large commercial manufacturers and third world producers, while durable, are susceptible to scratching and wear over time. The clay body is first bisqued to about 1000 °C (1900 °F). In

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3952-494: The following major categories of application: Electrical (e.g. insulation), electronics (e.g., coatings), household (e.g., sealants and cooking utensils), automobile (e.g. gaskets), airplane (e.g., seals), office machines (e.g. keyboard pads), medicine and dentistry (e.g. tooth impression molds ), textiles and paper (e.g. coatings). For these applications, an estimated 400,000 tonnes of silicones were produced in 1991. Specific examples, both large and small are presented below. In

4028-430: The furniture on which it is mounted. These sinks have become increasingly popular with bathroom designers because of the large range of materials, styles, and finishes that can be shown to good advantage. Catering sinks are often made in sizes compatible with standard size Gastronorm containers, a European standard for food containers. Pottery is made by a blend of clays, fillers and fluxes being fused together during

4104-692: The glass surface is breached, the underlying cast iron will often corrode, spalling off more of the glass. Aggressive cleaning will dull the surface, leading to more dirt accumulation. Enamel over steel is a similar-appearing but far less rugged and less cost-effective alternative. Solid ceramic sinks have many of the same characteristics as enamel over cast iron, but without the risk of surface damage leading to corrosion. Plastic sinks come in several basic forms: Soapstone sinks were once common, but today tend to be used only in very-high-end applications or applications that must resist caustic chemicals that would damage more-conventional sinks. Wood sinks are from

4180-514: The high strength of silicone rubber makes it an optimal adhesive and sealant for high impact airbags. Silicones in combination with thermoplastics provide improvements in scratch and mar resistance and lowered coefficient of friction. Silicone is a widely used material in the aerospace industry due to its sealing properties, stability across an extreme temperature range, durability, sound dampening and anti-vibration qualities, and naturally flame retardant properties. Maintaining extreme functionality

4256-455: The joint sanded flat, creating the usual invisible joint and completely eliminating any dirt-catching seam between the sink and the countertop. In a similar fashion, for stainless steel, a sink may be welded into the countertop; the joint is then ground to create a finished, concealed appearance. A butler's sink is a rectangular ceramic sink with a rounded rim which is set into a work surface. There are generally two kinds of butler's sinks:

4332-462: The launch of the silicone industry in the 1930s. His most notable contributions include his creation of silicone from silicon compounds and his method of making fused silica , a high-quality glass later used in aeronautics, advanced telecommunications, and computer chips. His work led to the formation of Dow Corning , an alliance between the Dow Chemical Company and Corning Glass Works that

4408-613: The mid-2010's, some professional athletes began wearing silicone rings as an alternative during games. Silicone greases are used for many purposes, such as bicycle chains , airsoft gun parts, and a wide range of other mechanisms . Typically, a dry-set lubricant is delivered with a solvent carrier to penetrate the mechanism. The solvent then evaporates, leaving a clear film that lubricates but does not attract dirt and grit as much as an oil -based or other traditional "wet" lubricant. Silicone personal lubricants are also available for use in medical procedures or sexual activity. Silicone

4484-792: The more elaborate designs usually placed in the kitchen. Sinks are made of many different materials. These include: Stainless steel is most commonly used in kitchens and commercial applications because it represents a good trade-off between cost, usability, durability, and ease of cleaning. Most stainless steel sinks are made by drawing a sheet of stainless steel over a die . Some very deep sinks are fabricated by welding . Stainless steel sinks will not be damaged by hot or cold objects and resist damage from impacts. Stainless steel sinks are widely celebrated for their durability, sleek appearance, and resistance to rust and corrosion. However, many homeowners are baffled when they spot rust stains on their stainless steel sink. One disadvantage of stainless steel

4560-421: The name "silicone", have long been identified as intermediates in gas-phase processes such as chemical vapor deposition in microelectronics production, and in the formation of ceramics by combustion. However, they have a strong tendency to polymerize into siloxanes. The first stable silanone was obtained in 2014 by A. Filippou and others. Most common are materials based on polydimethylsiloxane , which

4636-399: The necessity of a water source to act as the motive agent. Safety considerations for hydro-mechanical drain cleaners include the risk of injury from high-pressure water coming into contact with skin or delicate areas of the body (i.e., eyes, and face). Electric drain cleaners, also called plumber's snakes , use the mechanical force of an electric motor to twist a flexible cable or spring in

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4712-495: The pipe. Disadvantages of electric drain cleaners include high relative cost and weight, and the considerable physical effort that may be required to control the cable. Safety considerations for electric drain cleaners include the requirement to wear work gloves and eye protection, to carefully control the cable during operation to avoid overstressing it, to use appropriate caution when working around rotating machinery, and to use properly grounded electrical outlets. Sewer jetting

4788-431: The polymer chain can be introduced by using organosilicone precursors with fewer alkyl groups, such as methyl trichlorosilane and methyltrimethoxysilane . Ideally, each molecule of such a compound becomes a branch point. This process can be used to produce hard silicone resins. Similarly, precursors with three methyl groups can be used to limit molecular weight, since each such molecule has only one reactive site and so forms

4864-922: The polymer is a cyclic, not a chain. For consumer applications such as caulks, silyl acetates are used instead of silyl chlorides. The hydrolysis of the acetates produces the less dangerous acetic acid (the acid found in vinegar ) as the reaction product of a much slower curing process. This chemistry is used in many consumer applications, such as silicone caulk and adhesives . n   Si ( CH 3 ) 2 ( CH 3 COO ) 2 + n   H 2 O ⟶ [ Si ( CH 3 ) 2 O ] n + 2 n   CH 3 COOH {\displaystyle n\ {\ce {Si(CH3)2(CH3COO)2}}+n\ {\ce {H2O -> [Si(CH3)2O]}}_{n}+2n\ {\ce {CH3COOH}}} Branches or crosslinks in

4940-547: The product was determined to have the approximate formula [H 2 SiO] 6 . Higher polymers were proposed to form with time. Most polysiloxanes feature organic substituents, e.g., [(CH 3 ) 2 SiO] n and [(C 6 H 5 ) 2 SiO)] n . All polymerized siloxanes or polysiloxanes, silicones consist of an inorganic silicon–oxygen backbone chain ( ···−Si−O−Si−O−Si−O−··· ) with two groups attached to each silicon center. The materials can be cyclic or polymeric. By varying

5016-414: The second firing a white or coloured glaze is applied and is melted by heat which chemically and physically fuses the glass (glaze) to the clay body during the same firing process. Due to the firing process and natural clays used, it is normal for the product to vary in size and shape, and +/− 5 mm is normal. Some public restrooms feature automatic faucets , which use a motion-sensing valve to detect

5092-479: The sides of sewer pipes, thereby reducing the need for subsequent drain cleaning. Disadvantages of pressure washer sewer jetter attachments and many portable jetters include an inability to extract tree roots and other hard obstructions. Disadvantages of truck- and trailer-mounted sewer jetters include high relative cost and weight, and the requirement for extensive training to comply with manufacturers' safety guidelines. Safety considerations for sewer jetters include

5168-426: The sink and the counter top. Also, no matter how carefully the cut out is made, the result is either a small ledge or overhang at the interface with the sink. This can create an environment for catching dirt and allowing germs to grow. Solid-surface plastic materials allow sinks to be made of the same plastic material as the countertop. These sinks can then easily be glued to the underside of the countertop material and

5244-411: The sink's edge by draining it away and down into the wastewater plumbing . A farmer's sink is a deep sink that has a finished front. Set onto a countertop, the finished front of the sink remains exposed. This style of sink requires very little "reach-over" to access the sink. A vessel sink is a free-standing sink, generally finished and decorated on all sides, that sits directly on the surface of

5320-448: The structural differences between Kipping's molecules and the ketones means that silicone is no longer the correct term (though it remains in common usage) and that the term siloxane is preferred according to the nomenclature of modern chemistry. James Franklin Hyde (born 11 March 1903) was an American chemist and inventor. He has been called the "Father of Silicones" and is credited with

5396-707: The subject of controversy and press attention due to smoke development from pyrolysis of combustible components within the foam, hydrogen gas escape, shrinkage, and cracking. These problems have led to reportable events among licensees (operators of nuclear power plants ) of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) . Silicone firestops are also used in aircraft. Silicone is a popular alternative to traditional metals (such as silver and gold) with jewelry, specifically rings. Silicone rings are commonly worn in professions where metal rings can lead to injuries, such as electrical conduction and ring avulsions. During

5472-457: The tight spots. A sewer jetter is composed of a controlled high-pressure water source such as a pressure washer or reciprocating displacement pump , a flexible high-pressure line (called a jetter hose which connects the high-pressure engine to the mini-reel) of up to hundreds of metres (several hundred feet) in length, the Mini-Reel (a hose reel which can be taken a distance from the engine) and

5548-404: The user's hands moving beneath the tap and turn the water on. Some kitchen sinks also come equipped with a sink sprayer. Sinks, especially those made of stainless steel, can be fitted with an integrated drainboard , allowing for the draining of washed dishes. There are many different shapes and sizes of sinks. Drain cleaner A drain cleaner , also known as drain opener , refers to

5624-820: The vast majority of household drain clogs occur in the smallest-diameter piping, usually in the pop-up or drain trap, where they can be reached easily by a hydro-mechanical device's water hose. Advantages of hydro-mechanical drain cleaners are their eco-friendliness (most use only tap water), their ability to dislodge and remove clogs like sand or cat litter that 'back-fill when using a conventional snake, and their friendliness to plumbing joints. Unlike air-burst cleaners, hydro-mechanical drain cleaners do not pressurize plumbing joints. On some models of hydro-mechanical drain cleaner both hot and cold water can be used, providing added cleaning power for fat, protein, or other easily melting drain clogs. Disadvantages of hydro-mechanical drain cleaners included limited reach into drain plumbing, and

5700-433: The word silicone in 1901 to describe the formula of polydiphenylsiloxane, Ph 2 SiO (Ph = phenyl , C 6 H 5 ), by analogy with the formula of the ketone benzophenone , Ph 2 CO (his term was originally silicoketone ). Kipping was well aware that polydiphenylsiloxane is polymeric whereas benzophenone is monomeric and noted the contrasting properties of Ph 2 SiO and Ph 2 CO . The discovery of

5776-602: Was specifically created to produce silicone products. Silicone is often confused with silicon , but they are distinct substances. Silicon is a chemical element , a hard dark-grey semiconducting metalloid , which in its crystalline form is used to make integrated circuits ("electronic chips") and solar cells . Silicones are compounds that contain silicon, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and perhaps other kinds of atoms as well, and have many very different physical and chemical properties. Compounds containing silicon–oxygen double bonds, now called silanones , but which could deserve

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