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69-1092: Artificial plants are imitations of natural plants used for commercial or residential decoration. They are sometimes made for scientific purposes (the collection of glass flowers at Harvard University , for example, illustrates the flora of the United States). Artificial plants vary widely from mass-produced varieties that are distinguishable from real plants by casual observation to highly detailed botanical or artistic specimens. Materials used in their manufacture have included painted linen and shavings of stained horn in ancient Egypt , gold and silver in ancient Rome , rice-paper in China , silkworm cocoons in Italy , colored feathers in South America , and wax and tinted shells . Modern techniques involve carved or formed soap, nylon netting stretched over wire frames, ground clay, and mass-produced injection plastic mouldings. Polyester has been

138-753: A collection of artificial flowers made out of the feathers of hummingbirds . Glass Flowers Created by Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka from 1887 through 1936 at their studio in Hosterwitz , near Dresden, Germany , the collection was commissioned by George Lincoln Goodale , the first director of Harvard's Botanical Museum , and was financed by Mary Lee Ware and her mother Elizabeth C. Ware . It includes 847 life-size models (representing 780 species and varieties of plants in 164 families) and some 3,000 detail models such as of plant parts and anatomical sections. The collection comprises approximately 4,400 individual glass models representing over 830 plant species. Among

207-440: A filler. With the help of cutters, where each flower has its own cutter set, the parts are cut from the still soft clay and then formed with specially designed tools. After drying, these parts are, when needed, painted with precision and then very precisely assembled into a whole flower. When made by a skilful artisan, clay flowers can be very realistic. From Thailand, where this art is very popular, it has spread to Europe, Russia and

276-439: A glass modeler of skill, I have often said to people, is to get a good great-grandfather who loved glass." The Blaschkas' primary technique was lampworking , in which glass is melted over a flame fed by air from a foot-powered bellows, then shaped using tools to pinch, pull or cut; forms were blown as well. Their old-fashioned Bohemian lamp-working table is part of the museum exhibit. Over the years Rudolf brought more and more of

345-599: A horse to ride to the Parthian camp for a peace negotiation, his junior officer Octavius suspected a Parthian trap and grabbed Crassus' horse by the bridle, instigating a sudden fight with the Parthians that left all the Romans dead, including Crassus. A story later emerged that, after Crassus' death, the Parthians poured molten gold into his mouth to mock his thirst for wealth. Plutarch 's biography of Crassus also mentions that, during

414-487: A low price, and it was for this reason that he was forever hovering about the woman and paying his court to her, until he fell under the abominable suspicion. And, in a way, it was his avarice that absolved him from the charge of corrupting the vestal, and he was acquitted by the judges. But he did not let Licinia go until he had acquired her property." Despite his great wealth, Crassus is said to have avoided excess and luxury at home. Family meals were simple, and entertaining

483-495: A military commander under Lucius Cornelius Sulla during his civil war . Following Sulla's assumption of the dictatorship , Crassus amassed an enormous fortune through property speculation. Crassus rose to political prominence following his victory over the slave revolt led by Spartacus , sharing the consulship with his rival Pompey the Great. A political and financial patron of Julius Caesar , Crassus joined Caesar and Pompey in

552-630: A poem, "Silence", My father used to say, "Superior people never make long visits, have to be shown Longfellow's grave, or the glass flowers at Harvard." Crassus Marcus Licinius Crassus ( / ˈ k r æ s ə s / ; 115 – 53 BC) was a Roman general and statesman who played a key role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire . He is often called "the richest man in Rome". Crassus began his public career as

621-591: A protein fibre spun by the silk worm, producing lifelike flowers. Flowers described as being made of silk with a "real touch technique" are not made of silk, but rather are made of polyester, polymers and plastics. Moreover, textile items made of polyester but marketed as "silk" violate the US federal law – specifically the 1959 Textile Fiber Products Identification Act. There are two methods: Clay flowers are made by hand from special air-dry polymer clay or cold porcelain, steel wire, paint, glue, tape and sometimes paper and foam as

690-405: A segment of his army fled from battle, abandoning their weapons, Crassus revived the ancient practice of decimation – i.e. executing one out of every ten men, with the victims selected by drawing lots. Plutarch reports that "many things horrible and dreadful to see" occurred during the infliction of punishment, which was witnessed by the rest of Crassus' army. Nevertheless, according to Appian ,

759-403: A speech to the assembly that he should be no less grateful to them for the colleague than for the office which he desired." However, in office, they did not remain friendly. They "differed on almost every measure, and by their contentiousness, rendered their consulship barren politically and without achievement." Crassus displayed his wealth by realizing public sacrifices to Hercules, entertaining

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828-522: A tongue-in-cheek paper that claims to be the culmination of a six-year project in the exhaustive taxonomy of artificial plants, and lumped the group into a single family called the Simulacraceae ("the family of simulated plants"). Floral wreaths made by the ancient Egyptians were formed from thin plates of horn stained in different colors. They also sometimes consisted of leaves of copper , gilt or were silvered over. The ancient Romans excelled in

897-415: Is formally dedicated to Dr. Charles Eliot Ware , the deceased father and husband of Mary and Elizabeth Ware, respectively. The models are glass with wire supports (internal or external), glue, a variety of organic media, and paint or enamel coloring. The Boston Globe has called them "anatomically perfect and, given all the glass-workers who've tried and failed, unreproducible." It is often said that

966-643: Is said to have made part of his money from proscriptions, notably the proscription of one man whose name was not initially on the list of those proscribed but was added by Crassus, who coveted the man's fortune. Crassus' wealth is estimated by Pliny at approximately 200 million sesterces. Plutarch, in his Life of Crassus , says the wealth of Crassus increased from less than 300 talents at first, to 7,100 talents. This represented 229 tonnes of silver, worth about US$ 167.4 million at August 2023 silver prices, accounted right before his Parthian expedition, most of which Plutarch declares Crassus got "by fire and war, making

1035-608: The gens Licinia , an old and highly respected plebeian family in Rome. He was the second of three sons born to the eminent senator and vir triumphalis Publius Licinius Crassus (consul 95 BC, censor 89 BC). This line was not descended from the wealthy Crassi Divites, although often assumed to be. The eldest brother, Publius (born c.  116 BC ), died shortly before the Italic War , and Crassus' father and younger brother were either slain or took their own lives in Rome, in winter 87–86 BC, when being hunted down by

1104-498: The Battle of Carrhae and death in its aftermath. Crassus' death permanently unraveled the alliance between Caesar and Pompey, since his political influence and wealth had been a counterbalance to the two greater militarists. Within four years of Crassus' death, Caesar crossed the Rubicon and began a civil war against Pompey and the optimates . Marcus Licinius Crassus was a member of

1173-481: The Euphrates in an attempt to conquer Parthia . Crassus attacked Parthia not only because of its great source of riches, but because of a desire to match the military victories of Pompey and Caesar. The king of Armenia , Artavasdes II , offered Crassus the aid of nearly 40,000 troops (10,000 cataphracts and 30,000 infantrymen) on the condition that Crassus invade through Armenia so that the king could not only maintain

1242-612: The Jewish Temple treasury. In 55 BC, after the Triumvirate met at the Luca Conference in 56 BC, Crassus was again consul with Pompey, and a law was passed assigning the provinces of the two Hispanias and Syria to Pompey and Crassus, respectively, for five years. Crassus received Syria as his province, which promised to be an inexhaustible source of wealth. It might have been, had he not also sought military glory and crossed

1311-466: The Roman province of Africa and joined Metellus Pius , one of Sulla's closest allies, but did not stay there for long because of disagreements with Metellus. He sailed his army to Greece and joined Sulla , "with whom he stood in a position of special honor." During Sulla's civil war , Crassus and Pompey fought a battle in the plain of Spoletium ( Spoleto ), killed about 3,000 of the men of Papirius Carbo ,

1380-519: The Via Appia by Crassus' orders. At his command, their bodies were not taken down afterwards, but remained rotting along Rome's principal route to the south. This was intended as an object lesson to anyone especially slaves who might think of rebelling against Roman citizens and slave-owners. Crassus effectively ended the Third Servile War in 71 BC. In Plutarch's account, Crassus "had written to

1449-516: The battle of the Silarius river , Crassus gained a decisive victory, and captured six thousand slaves alive. During the fighting, Spartacus attempted to personally kill Crassus, slaughtering his way toward the general's position, but he succeeded only in killing two of the centurions guarding Crassus. Spartacus himself is believed to have been killed in the battle, although his body was never recovered. The six thousand captured slaves were crucified along

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1518-552: The Blaschka models surpasses all modern model making to date and the skill and art of the Blaschkas rests in peace for eternity." The Glass Flowers is one of the most noted tourist attractions of the Boston area. More than 210,000 visitors view the collection annually. In 1936, when Harvard invited the public to tour the campus in honor of its tercentenary, a New York Times reporter taking

1587-434: The Blaschkas employed secret techniques now lost; in fact their techniques were common at the time, but their skill, enthusiasm, and meticulous study and observation of their subjects in life were extraordinary, which Leopold ascribed to familial tradition, in a letter to Mary Lee Ware: "Many people think that we have some secret apparatus by which we can squeeze glass suddenly into these forms   ... The only way to become

1656-483: The Parthians were weak and unorganized. He then led Crassus' army into desert, far from any water. In 53   BC, at the Battle of Carrhae (modern Harran , in Turkey), Crassus' legions were defeated by a numerically inferior Parthian force. Crassus' legions were primarily heavy infantry, and not prepared for an attack by swift mounted archers, a tactic which Parthian troops had mastered. The Parthian horse archers devastated

1725-455: The Romans until dusk. Despite taking severe casualties, the Romans successfully retreated to Carrhae, forced to leave many wounded behind to be slaughtered by the Parthians. Subsequently, Crassus' men, being near mutiny , demanded he parley with the Parthians, who had offered to meet with him. Crassus, despondent at the death of his son Publius in the battle, finally agreed to meet the Parthian general Surena . However, when Crassus mounted

1794-498: The Senate that they must summon Lucullus from Thrace and Pompey from Spain, but he was sorry now that he had done so, and was eager to bring the war to an end before those generals came. He knew that the success would be ascribed to the one who came up with assistance, and not to himself." He decided to attack a splinter group of rebels, and after this, Spartacus withdrew to the mountains. Pompey had arrived from Hispania with his veterans and

1863-407: The US. Glass is melted and blown by hand into flower shapes. Working with glass at high temperatures to form a flower is very difficult, which is why glass flowers are much more expensive than typical artificial flowers. Injection moulding is used for mass manufacture of plastic flowers. Plastic is injected into a preformed metal die. The journal Ethnobotany Research and Applications published

1932-447: The adjacent ones "because their owners would let go at a trifling price." He bought "the largest part of Rome" in this way, buying them on the cheap and rebuilding them with slave labor. The first ever Roman fire brigade was created by Crassus. Fires were almost a daily occurrence in Rome, and Crassus took advantage of the fact that Rome had no fire department, by creating his own brigade—500 men strong—which rushed to burning buildings at

2001-759: The art of imitating flowers in wax and in this branch of the art attained a degree of perfection which has not been approached in modern times. Crassus , renowned for his wealth, gave to the victors in the games he celebrated at Rome crowns of artificial leaves made of gold and silver. In more recent times, Italians were the first to acquire celebrity for the skill and taste they displayed in this manufacture. Later English , American , and especially French manufactures were celebrated. The Chinese and Japanese show great dexterity in this work. These early artificial flowers were made out of many-coloured ribbons which were twisted together and attached to small pieces of wire. But these first attempts were decidedly crude. In

2070-410: The consulship. Crassus had been praetor as the law of Sulla required. Pompey had been neither praetor nor quaestor, and was only 34 years old, but he had promised the plebeian tribunes to restore much of their power, that had been taken away by Sulla's constitutional reforms. Even when they were both chosen consuls, they did not dismiss their armies stationed near the city. Pompey said that he was awaiting

2139-418: The course of time feathers were substituted for ribbons, a more delicate material, but one to which it was not so easy to give the requisite shades of color. The plumage of the birds of South America was adapted for artificial flowers on account of the brilliancy and permanence of the tints, and the natives of that continent long practised with success the making of feather flowers . The London Zoo contains

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2208-450: The craft's popularity has spread Asia, Europe and Australia. With the advent of new colors and materials, the art has expanded to infinite new possibilities of nylon flower making. The basic materials needed to make nylon flowers include: wire, stem wire, nylon stocking, nylon threading, floral tape and stamen. Some flowers require cotton balls or sheets (or batting), white glue, acrylic paint and paint brushes. Silk flowers are crafted from

2277-499: The enemy's center, and used the news of Crassus' success to stiffen the resolve of his own troops. By the following morning, the battle was over, and the Sullan army emerged victorious, making Sulla the master of Rome. Sulla's victory, and Crassus' contribution to it, put Crassus in a key position. Sulla was as loyal to his allies as he was cruel towards his enemies, and Crassus had been a very loyal ally. Marcus Licinius Crassus' next concern

2346-454: The entire production process under his personal control, eventually even manufacturing his own glass and colorants. Botanist Donald Schnell has called the models "enchanting", and relates his surprise at finding that the models faithfully depict an unpublished detail of a bee's behavior while pollinating a particular plant—a detail which he had privately hypothesized. Whitehouse and Small wrote that "the superiority in design and construction of

2415-450: The feasting and revelry in the wedding ceremony of Artavasdes' sister to the Parthian king Orodes II 's son and heir Pacorus in the Armenian capital of Artashat , Crassus' head was brought to Orodes II. Both kings were enjoying a performance of Euripides ' tragedy The Bacchae when an actor of the royal court, named Jason of Tralles, took the head and sang these verses: We bring from

2484-427: The first cry of alarm. Upon arriving at the scene, however, the firefighters did nothing while Crassus offered to buy the burning building from the distressed property owner, at a miserable price. If the owner agreed to sell the property, his men would put out the fire; if the owner refused, then they would simply let the structure burn to the ground. After buying many properties this way, he rebuilt them, and often leased

2553-608: The first half of the 19th century, the Swedish artist Emma Fürstenhoff became internationally renowned in Europe for her artificial flower arrangements of wax in a technique regarded as a novelty in contemporary Europe. In the 1910s, Beat-Sofi Granqvist studied the manufacture of artificial flowers in Germany . After returning to Finland , she founded Finland's first artificial flower factory, next to her apartment at Pieni Roobertinkatu 4-6. In

2622-413: The fortunes of wealthy adherents to Gaius Marius or Lucius Cornelius Cinna . Proscriptions meant that their political enemies lost their fortunes and their lives; that their female relatives (notably, widows and widowed daughters) were forbidden to marry, remarry or remain married; and that, in some cases, their families' hopes of rebuilding their fortunes and political significance were destroyed. Crassus

2691-599: The glass flowers?" At least two poems feature the flowers: Mark Doty (winner of the National Book Award for Poetry in 2008), "The Ware Collection of Glass Flowers and Fruit, Harvard Museum", in My Alexandria , 1993, He's built a perfection out of hunger, fused layer upon layer, swirled until what can't be tasted, won't yield, almost satisfies, an art mouthed to the shape of how soft things are, how good, before they disappear. Marianne Moore wrote in

2760-632: The leader of the Marian forces, and besieged Carrinas , a Marian commander. During the decisive Battle of the Colline Gate , Crassus commanded the right flank of Sulla's army. After almost a day of fighting, the battle was going poorly for Sulla; his own center was being pushed back and was on the verge of collapse when he got word from Crassus that he had comprehensively crushed the enemy before him. Crassus wanted to know whether Sulla needed assistance, or whether his men could retire. Sulla told him to advance on

2829-650: The main material for manufacturing artificial flowers since the 1970s. Most artificial flowers in the market nowadays are made of polyester fabric and plastic. The industry is now highly specialized with several different manufacturing processes. Hundreds of artificial flower factories in the Pearl River delta area of Guangdong province in China have been built since the early 1980s. Thousands of 40-foot containers of polyester flowers and plants are exported to many countries every year. Five main processes may be distinguished: While

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2898-515: The material most often used to make artificial flowers is polyester fabric, both paper and cloth flowers are also made with origami . The art of nylon flower making is an easy to learn craft which uses simple tools and inexpensive material to achieve stunning results. Nylon flower making enjoyed a brief popularity in the United States in the 1970s and soon became very popular in Japan. In recent years,

2967-517: The minor triumph on foot, called the ovation," nor did he wish to be honored for subduing slaves. In Plutarch's account, Pompey was asked to stand for the consulship. Crassus wanted to become his colleague and asked Pompey for his assistance. As said in the Life of Crassus , "Pompey received his request gladly (for he was desirous of having Crassus, in some way or other, always in debt to him for some favor), eagerly promoted his candidature, and finally said in

3036-442: The models, 64 glass sculptures depict the effect of fungi , in particular plant diseases of Rosaceae by phytopathogens . Starting in 1863 the Blaschkas had a thriving business making glass models of marine invertebrates , selling them to museums and private collectors in a global enterprise (see Glass sea creatures ). At the time botanical specimens were pressed, carefully labeled, and put on display. The pressing lost

3105-444: The mountain A tendril fresh-cut to the palace A wonderful prey. Crassus' head was thus used instead of a prop to represent Pentheus and carried by of Agave . Also according to Plutarch, Crassus was mocked by dressing up a Roman prisoner, Caius Paccianus, who resembled him, in women's clothing, calling him "Crassus" and " imperator ", and leading him in a spectacular show of a final, satirical "triumphal procession", ridiculing

3174-476: The night of a heavy snowstorm, they sneaked through Crassus' lines and made a bridge of dirt and tree branches over the ditch, thus escaping. Some time later, when the Roman armies led by Pompey and Varro Lucullus were recalled to Italy in support of Crassus, Spartacus decided to fight rather than find himself and his followers trapped between three armies, two of them returning from overseas action. In this last battle,

3243-464: The populace at 10,000 tables and distributing sufficient grain to last each family three months, an act that had the additional ends of performing a previously made religious vow of a tithe to the demigod Hercules and also to gain support among the members of the popular party. In Appian's account, when Crassus ended the rebellion, there was a contention over honors between him and Pompey. Neither men dismissed their armies, with both being candidates for

3312-487: The priest of Jupiter, or flamen dialis , but had been deprived of office by Sulla. Crassus also supported Caesar's efforts to win command of military campaigns. Caesar's mediation between Crassus and Pompey led to the creation of the First Triumvirate in 60 BC, consisting of Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar (who became consul in 59 BC). This coalition would last until Crassus' death. In 54 BC, Crassus looted

3381-441: The project Goodale approached his former student Mary Lee Ware and her mother, Elizabeth C. Ware, who were already liberal benefactors of Harvard's botanical department. The original arrangement (in 1887) provided that the Blaschkas would work half time on the project, but in 1890 a new arrangement called for them to work full-time. The work continued until 1936, at which point Leopold and Elizabeth had both died. The collection

3450-482: The properties to their original owners or new tenants. Crassus befriended Licinia , a Vestal Virgin , whose valuable property he coveted. Plutarch says "And yet, when he was further on in years, he was accused of criminal intimacy with Licinia, one of the vestal virgins, and Licinia was formally prosecuted by a certain Plotius. Now, Licinia was the owner of a pleasant villa in the suburbs, which Crassus wished to get at

3519-516: The public calamities his greatest source of revenue." Some of Crassus' wealth was acquired conventionally, through slave trafficking, production from silver mines, and speculative real estate purchases. Crassus bought property that was confiscated in proscriptions and by notoriously purchasing burnt and collapsed buildings. Plutarch wrote that, observing how frequent such occurrences were, he bought slaves "who were architects and builders." When he had over 500 slaves, he bought houses that had burnt and

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3588-468: The return of Metellus for his Spanish triumph; Crassus said that Pompey ought to dismiss his army first. In the end, Crassus yielded first, offering Pompey his hand. In 65 BC, Crassus was elected censor with another conservative, Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus , himself son of a consul. During that decade, Crassus was Julius Caesar's patron in all but name, financing Caesar's successful election to become pontifex maximus . Caesar had formerly been

3657-558: The supporters of Gaius Marius , following their victory in the Bellum Octavianum . Crassus had the unusual distinction of marrying his wife Tertulla after she had been widowed by his brother. There were three main branches of the house of the Licinii Crassi in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, and many mistakes in identifications and lines have arisen owing to the uniformity of Roman nomenclature, erroneous modern suppositions, and

3726-617: The third line of Licinii Crassi of the period, the most famous of whom was Lucius Licinius Crassus , the greatest Roman orator before Cicero and the latter's childhood hero and model. Marcus Crassus was also a talented orator and one of the most energetic and active advocates of his time. After the Marian purges and the subsequent sudden death of Gaius Marius , the surviving consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna (father-in-law of Julius Caesar ) imposed proscriptions on those surviving Roman senators and equestrians who had supported Lucius Cornelius Sulla in his 88 BC march on Rome and overthrow of

3795-515: The three-dimensional aspect of the specimens, and the formerly living tissues lost their color. In 1886 the Blaschkas were approached by Professor Goodale, who after seeing their marine models, went to Dresden to ask them to make a series of glass botanical models for Harvard, which would be three-dimensional and with stable color. Leopold was hesitant but eventually agreed to make some sample models which, though badly damaged in customs, convinced Goodale of their value in botanical teaching. To fund

3864-474: The tour commented "Tercentenary or no, the chief focus of interest remains the famous glass flowers, the first of which was put on exhibition in 1893, and which with additions at intervals since, have never failed to draw exclamations of wonder or disbelief from visitors." Many visitors initially believe the Glass Flowers to be real, organic, plants and soon after entering or leaving exhibition inquire "Where are

3933-475: The traditional Roman political arrangements. Cinna's proscription forced Crassus to flee to Hispania . He stayed in Spain from 87 to 84 BC. Here, he recruited 2,500 men (an understrength legion) from his father's clients settled in the area. Crassus used his army to extort money from the local cities to pay for his campaigns, even being accused of sacking Malaca. After Cinna's death in 84 BC, Crassus went to

4002-573: The troops' fighting spirit improved dramatically thereafter, since Crassus had demonstrated that "he was more dangerous to them than the enemy." Afterwards, when Spartacus retreated to the Bruttium peninsula in the southwest of Italy, Crassus tried to pen up the slave armies by building a ditch and a rampart across the peninsula of Rhegium in Bruttium, "from sea to sea." Despite this remarkable feat, Spartacus and part of his army still managed to break out. On

4071-602: The unevenness of information across the generations. In addition, the Dives cognomen of the Crassi Divites means rich or wealthy, and since Marcus Crassus, the subject here, was renowned for his enormous wealth, this has contributed to hasty assumptions that his family belonged to the Divites. But no ancient source accords him or his father the Dives cognomen; Plutarch says his great wealth

4140-471: The unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate . Together, the three men dominated the Roman political system, but the alliance did not last long, due to the ambitions, egos, and jealousies of the three men. While Caesar and Crassus were lifelong allies, Crassus and Pompey disliked each other and Pompey grew increasingly envious of Caesar's spectacular successes in the Gallic Wars . The alliance

4209-436: The unprepared Romans with hit-and-run tactics, feigning retreats as they shot to their rear. Crassus refused his quaestor Gaius Cassius Longinus ' plans to reconstitute the Roman battle line, and remained in the testudo formation to protect his flanks until the Parthians eventually ran out of arrows. However, the Parthians brought camels carrying arrows to continuously resupply their archers, letting them relentlessly barrage

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4278-606: The upkeep of his own troops but also provide a safer route for his men and Crassus. Crassus refused, and chose the more direct route by crossing the Euphrates, as he had done in his successful campaign in the previous year. Crassus received directions from the Osroene chieftain Ariamnes, who had previously assisted Pompey in his eastern campaigns. Ariamnes was in the pay of the Parthians and urged Crassus to attack at once, falsely stating that

4347-557: Was acquired rather than inherited, and that he was raised in modest circumstances. Crassus' grandfather of the same name, Marcus Licinius Crassus (praetor c. 126 BC), was facetiously given the Greek nickname Agelastus (the unlaughing or grim) by his contemporary Gaius Lucilius , the inventor of Roman satire, who asserted that he smiled once in his whole life. This grandfather was son of Publius Licinius Crassus . The latter's brother, Gaius Licinius Crassus (consul 168 BC), produced

4416-536: Was elected praetor in 73 BC and pursued the cursus honorum . During the Third Servile War , or Spartacus' revolt (73–71 BC), Crassus offered to equip, train, and lead new troops at his own expense, after several legions had been defeated and their commanders killed in battle. Crassus was sent into battle against Spartacus by the Senate. At first, he had trouble both in anticipating Spartacus' moves and in inspiring his army to strengthen their morale. When

4485-504: Was generous but not ostentatious; Crassus chose his companions during leisure hours on the basis of personal friendship as well as political utility. Although the Crassi, as noble plebeians , would have displayed ancestral images in their atrium, they did not lay claim to a fictionalized genealogy that presumed divine or legendary ancestors, a practice not uncommon among the Roman nobility. After rebuilding his fortune, Crassus' next concern

4554-403: Was his political career. As a wealthy man in Rome, an adherent of Sulla, and a man who hailed from a line of consuls and praetors, Crassus' political future was apparently assured. His problem was that, despite his military successes, he was eclipsed by his contemporary Pompey the Great . Crassus' rivalry with Pompey and his envy of Pompey's triumph would influence his subsequent career. Crassus

4623-459: Was restabilized at the Luca Conference in 56 BC, after which Crassus and Pompey again served jointly as consuls. Following his second consulship, Crassus was appointed as the governor of Roman Syria . Crassus used Syria as the launchpad for a military campaign against the Parthian Empire , Rome's long-time eastern enemy. Crassus' campaign was a disastrous failure, ending in his defeat at

4692-428: Was sent to provide reinforcements. Crassus hurried to seek the final battle, which he won. Pompey arrived in time to deal with the disorganized and defeated fugitives, writing to the Senate that "indeed, Crassus had conquered the slaves, but that he himself had extirpated the war." "Crassus, for all his self-approval, did not venture to ask for the major triumph, and it was thought ignoble and mean in him to celebrate even

4761-615: Was to rebuild the fortunes of his family, which had been confiscated during the Marian-Cinnan proscriptions . Sulla's proscriptions, in which the property of his victims was cheaply auctioned off, found one of the greatest acquirers of this type of property in Crassus: indeed, Sulla was especially supportive of this, because he wished to spread the blame as much as possible among those unscrupulous enough to do so. Sulla's proscriptions ensured that his survivors would recoup their lost fortunes from

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