149-753: The Indian Statutory Commission , also known as the Simon Commission , was a group of seven members of the British Parliament under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon . The commission arrived in the Indian subcontinent in 1928 to study constitutional reform in British India. One of its members was Clement Attlee , who would later become the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1945 - 1951). The commission
298-611: A Liberal (identified initially with the left wing but later with the right wing of the party), he joined the National Government in 1931, creating the Liberal National Party in the process. At the end of his career, he was essentially a Conservative . Simon was born in a terraced house on Moss Side , Manchester , the eldest child and only son of Edwin Simon (1843–1920) and wife Fanny Allsebrook (1846–1936). His father
447-454: A West Riding yeomanry regiment. He made a rare intervention in debate, urging that conscription be introduced immediately. He was sent to the front line in 1916. In January 1917 he was mentioned in despatches ("Heaven Knows What For" he wrote). He rose to the rank of major. He was then deputy director of Labour Supply at the Ministry of National Service from November 1917 to the end of 1918. He
596-695: A coalition government with the Labour and Liberal parties, but Churchill opposed that. At 10.15 am the next morning (9 May), Chamberlain met with Halifax and Churchill in the Cabinet Room. Churchill's own account of these events, published eight years later in The Gathering Storm , the first volume of his The Second World War , does not tally exactly with contemporary accounts such as Halifax's own diary and Alexander Cadogan 's record of his conversations with Halifax, or accounts given by Chamberlain or by
745-729: A minority Labour government . When the Conservatives were returned to power on 6 November 1924, Wood was appointed Minister for Agriculture , a more onerous job than Education had been. He took an Agriculture and Tithes Bill through the Commons. In October 1925, Lord Birkenhead , Secretary of State for India , offered Wood the job of Viceroy of India at the suggestion of King George V . His paternal grandfather Sir Charles Wood had been Secretary of State for India in 1859–1865. He almost declined, as he had two sons of school age and his aged father seemed unlikely to live until 1931 when his term
894-693: A " Cecilian stoop and sympathetic kindly eyes" and gave an impression of a Prince of the Church (R. Bernays Naked Fakir 1931). Several attempts were made to assassinate him. He was more sympathetic to Indians than his predecessors had been, although he had no compunctions about signing death warrants when he thought them justified. He wanted Indians to be more united and friendly to the UK; his first major speech as viceroy, and several more throughout his term of office, urged an end to communal violence between Hindus and Muslims. The Government of India Act 1919 had incorporated
1043-465: A "lucid exposition of the problems of the subcontinent in all their complexity". However, Simon had been hampered by the inquiry's terms of reference (no Indians had been included on the committee), and his conclusions were overshadowed by the Irwin Declaration of October 1929, which Simon opposed, which promised India eventual dominion status . Simon was appointed GCSI 1930. Before serving on
1192-636: A "responsible" government at the provincial level in India but not at the national level—that is a government responsible to the Indian community rather than London. It is the basis of many parts of the Indian Constitution . In 1937 the first elections were held in the Provinces, resulting in Congress Governments being returned in almost all Provinces. Clement Attlee was deeply moved by his experience on
1341-458: A brutal police beating during the protest and died of his injuries eighteen days later on 17 November 1928. The Government of India Act 1919 had introduced the system of diarchy to govern the provinces of British India . Indian opinion clamored for revision of this form of government, and the Government of India Act 1919 stated that a commission would be appointed after ten years to investigate
1490-558: A coalition government. They replied that it might be possible but only with a different prime minister and that before they could give an official answer, they would need the approval of Labour's National Executive Committee , then in Bournemouth preparing for the annual conference which was to start on the Monday. They were asked to telephone with the result of the consultation by the following afternoon. In his diary entry for 9 May, written up
1639-764: A commitment to go to war until the French had also committed. Both of them were the objects of a Cabinet revolt, which insisted on Britain honouring the guarantee to Poland. Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. After the outbreak of war, Halifax's diplomacy aimed to dissuade the Soviets from formally joining the Axis powers . He opposed the bombing of Germany, lest the Germans retaliate. Swedish intermediary Birger Dahlerus had approached Britain for peace talks in August 1939, just before
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#17328526838101788-612: A firm commitment to rearmament, albeit unenthusiastically. All parties recognised the hostility of public opinion to war or military preparations, and the difficulty of acting without a readiness on the part of America or the Soviet Union to play their part (the Labour Party opposed rearmament until well after the Munich Agreement ). Nonetheless, Halifax was criticised as an appeaser, along with Chamberlain, Hoare, and twelve others, in
1937-566: A former Foreign Minister and career diplomat during the Weimar Republic , whether the German people would accept such an ideological shift from anti-communism to signing a pact with the Soviet Union. Neurath assured Hitler that he "could do what he liked with the [National Socialist] Party". With Poland now looking likely to be carved up between Germany and the Soviets (as indeed soon took place),
2086-565: A government. On doing so, one of Churchill's first actions was to form a new, smaller War cabinet by replacing six of the Conservative politicians with Greenwood and Attlee, retaining only Halifax and Chamberlain. Churchill's political position was weak, although he was popular with the Labour and Liberal parties for his stance against appeasement in the 1930s. He was unpopular in the Conservative Party, however, and he might not have been
2235-509: A keen interest in foreign affairs and wanted a leading non-Conservative in that role. In 1933 and late 1934, Simon was being criticised by both Austen and Neville Chamberlain as well as by Eden, Lloyd George, Nancy Astor , David Margesson , Vincent Massey , Runciman, Jan Smuts and Churchill. Simon accompanied MacDonald to negotiate the Stresa Front with France and Italy in April 1935, but it
2384-521: A member of the royal family. In April 1921, he was appointed Under-Secretary for the Colonies , under Churchill who was initially reluctant to meet him (on one occasion he stormed into Churchill's office and told him that he "expected to be treated like a gentleman"). In the winter of 1921–1922, Wood visited the British West Indies and wrote a report for Churchill. On 16 October 1922, Wood attended
2533-431: A more robust foreign policy towards the dictators. Many shared Churchill's confidence in the large French Army , although fewer shared his belief that France would be a resilient ally. Chamberlain embraced the policy of appeasement as a moral force for good, as did many others who were deeply opposed to war and defence spending. By comparison, Halifax's policy appears more pragmatic, like that of Samuel Hoare , coupled to
2682-576: A motion of no confidence brought about by the deteriorating military situation in Norway . The government had a nominal majority of 213 in the House: at the end of the " Norway Debate ", they won the vote with a majority of only 81; 33 Conservatives and 8 of their allies voted with the opposition parties, and 60 abstained. Churchill had only grudgingly been appointed First Lord of the Admiralty . Nevertheless, he mounted
2831-514: A neutral Italy, Britain would be unable to move large naval forces east to confront Japan, given strong isolationist sentiment in America . For many, especially in the Foreign Office , appeasement was a necessary compromise to buy time for rearmament, a process to which Britain was already heavily committed. Others, especially Churchill, hoped that a strong military alliance with France would permit
2980-658: A policy having been implicit for a decade, the Declaration was denounced by many on the Tory Right. Lord Reading (Irwin's predecessor as Viceroy) denounced it, and Simon made his displeasure known. There was brief hope of a breakthrough in Anglo-Indian relations, but the New Delhi Conference of December 1929 between Irwin and the Indian leaders failed to reach agreement. Gandhi now began a campaign of civil disobedience with
3129-423: A policy of deterrence. He hoped that increased rearmament—including strengthening of alliances with and economic support to the countries of Eastern Europe, and the reintroduction of conscription—coupled with a firmer line towards Germany, Italy, and Japan would reduce the risks of those three hostile powers acting in combination. It is of note that, when war began, neither Japan nor Italy was prepared to join in until
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#17328526838103278-644: A programme of rearmament, initially to give Germany armed forces commensurate with France and other powers. Simon did not foresee the sheer scale of Hitler's ambitions, but Dutton pointed out, the same was then true for many others. Simon's term of office also saw the failure of the World Disarmament Conference (1932-1934). His contribution was not entirely in vain since he proposed qualitative (seeking to limit or ban certain types of weapon), rather than quantitative (simple numbers of weapons), disarmament. Simon does not appear to have been considered for
3427-488: A second Foreign Secretary, and his dominance of his Cabinet was never so overwhelming again. The eventual Munich Agreement , signed after Chamberlain's third summit meeting with Hitler, was apparently popular around the world and humiliating to many in the British government, but it was short of Hitler's desires (and of Chamberlain's proposed concessions) and increased Hitler's determination to return to destroy Czechoslovakia in
3576-555: A semi-official capacity, and met Adolf Hitler . The visit came about after Hermann Göring invited Halifax, in his private capacity as Master of the Middleton Hunt , to attend a hunting exhibition in Berlin, and to hunt foxes with Göring in Pomerania . Halifax later stated that he had initially been unenthusiastic about the circumstances of the visit, although Eden had pressed him to accept
3725-679: A series of concessions that were unwise and that were unlikely to secure the necessary pacification of Germany. On 25 September 1938, Halifax spoke out in Cabinet against the inflated demands presented by Hitler in the Godesberg Memorandum after his second summit meeting with Chamberlain. It is now known that Halifax, under Cadogan's influence, persuaded the Cabinet to reject the Godesberg terms. Britain and Germany came close to war until Chamberlain flew to Munich. Chamberlain could hardly afford to lose
3874-634: A serious threat by the older political parties. In the early 1920s, he practised successfully at the bar before being elected for Spen Valley at the general election in 1922 , and from 1922 to 1924, he served as deputy leader of the Liberal Party (under Asquith). In the early 1920s, he spoke in the House of Commons about socialism, the League of Nations , unemployment and Ireland. He may well have hoped to succeed Asquith as Liberal leader. He retired temporarily from
4023-604: A sound foreign minister – and Stresa marked the nearest Europe has been to peace since 1914". Simon served as Home Secretary (in Stanley Baldwin 's Third Government) from 7 June 1935 to 28 May 1937. That position was in Dutton's view better suited to his abilities than the Foreign Office. He also became Deputy Leader of the House of Commons on the understanding that the latter position would be given to Neville Chamberlain after
4172-453: A strong and passionate defence of Chamberlain and his government in the debate preceding the vote. Under ordinary circumstances, such a weak vote would not have been politically disastrous, but it was decisive at a time when the Prime Minister was being strongly criticised by both sides of the House and there was a strong desire for national unity. Talking to Churchill after the vote, Chamberlain admitted his dismay and said that he would try for
4321-745: A view to achieving complete independence. He walked for 24 days to the sea, where he proceeded to make salt, in breach of the government's historic monopoly. Irwin had all the Congress leaders put behind bars, including Gandhi eventually. Some criticism of Irwin may have been unfair but he had made an error and the consequences were serious and unrest grew. Irwin's position was seen as excessively lenient by London but as half-hearted in India. With little room for manoeuvre, Irwin resorted to repression using his emergency powers to ban public gatherings and crush rebellious opposition. Gandhi's detention, however, only made matters worse. In November 1930, King George V opened
4470-401: A weak and feeble folk". On the contrary, what made Hitler worried was the thought of a joint pact between France, Britain and the Soviet Union to prevent a pact between Germany and the Soviet Union. Halifax did not know that in April 1939, Hitler told Ernst von Weizsäcker that he was contemplating a reconciliation with the Soviet Union. On 2 August 1939, Hitler asked Konstantin von Neurath ,
4619-464: Is not by any means the splitting of the party". Lloyd George referred to Simon as "a kind of Robespierre ". Simon contemplated resigning in protest at the declaration of war in August 1914 but, in the end, changed his mind. He was accused of hypocrisy even though his position was not actually very different from that of Lloyd George. He remained in the Cabinet after Asquith reminded him of his public duty and hinted at promotion. He damaged himself in
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4768-443: Is also hard to reconcile with Halifax's having expressed his reluctance to do so to Chamberlain at a meeting between the two men on the morning of the 9th. At 4.30 pm that afternoon Chamberlain held another meeting, attended by Halifax, Churchill, and the leader and the deputy leader of the opposition Labour Party ( Clement Attlee and Arthur Greenwood respectively). He asked the Labour leaders if they would agree to serve in
4917-474: Is contested, but records show that Simon did commend the bill to the house. Other issues Simon also played a key role behind the scenes in the 1936 Abdication Crisis . In 2013 it was revealed that he was so worried about the behaviour of King Edward VIII that he ordered the bugging of his telephone line. He was one of the signatories to the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 . He also introduced
5066-528: Is yet to be brought to light. Irwin returned to the UK on 3 May 1931. He was honoured with the Order of the Garter (he became chancellor of the order in 1943). In 1931 he declined the Foreign Office in the new National Government , not least because the Tory Right would not have liked it. Officially, he declared that he wanted to spend time at home. He went to Canada, at the invitation of Vincent Massey , to speak at
5215-417: The 1906 general election . In 1908, he became a KC (senior barrister) at the same time as F. E. Smith. Simon annoyed Smith by not telling his rival in advance that he was applying for silk. In 1909, Simon spoke out strongly in parliament in support of David Lloyd George 's progressive " People's Budget ". He entered the government on 7 October 1910 as solicitor-general , succeeding Rufus Isaacs , and
5364-599: The Chief Whip David Margesson (whose presence at the meeting Churchill does not mention). Churchill described a battle of wills in which Chamberlain opened the meeting by arguing that Churchill could not command the support of the Labour Party after he had had to defend the government at the Norway Debate, only to be met with a lengthy silence before Halifax, with some hesitation, expressed his own unfitness for
5513-858: The Factories Act 1937 . In 1937, Neville Chamberlain succeeded Baldwin as prime minister. Simon succeeded Chamberlain as Chancellor of the Exchequer and was raised to GCVO in 1937. As Chancellor, he tried to keep arms spending as low as possible in the belief that a strong economy was the "fourth arm of defence". In 1937, he presented a finance bill that was based on the budget that Chamberlain had drawn up before being promoted. Lord Irwin Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax , KG , OM , GCSI , GCMG , GCIE , TD , PC (16 April 1881 – 23 December 1959), known as
5662-548: The German occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, he was one of those who pushed for a new policy of attempting to deter further German aggression by promising to go to war to defend Poland . On Chamberlain's resignation early in May 1940, Halifax effectively declined the position of prime minister as he felt that Winston Churchill would be a more suitable war leader (Halifax's membership in
5811-622: The House of Lords was given as the official reason). A few weeks later, with the Allies nearing catastrophic defeat and British forces falling back to Dunkirk , Halifax favoured approaching Italy to see if acceptable peace terms could be negotiated. He was overruled by Churchill after a series of stormy meetings of the War cabinet . From 1941 to 1946, he served as British Ambassador to the United States . Wood
5960-560: The League of Nations at Geneva on 7 December 1932 in which he failed to denounce Japan unequivocally. Thereafter, Simon was known as the "Man of Manchukuo " and was compared unfavourably to the young Anthony Eden , who was popular at Geneva. At the same time, Adolf Hitler was coming to power in Germany in January 1933. Hitler immediately withdrew Germany from the League of Nations and announced
6109-758: The Liberals won a landslide victory, choosing to devote his energies to his All Souls Fellowship. By 1909, the political tides had turned enough for Wood to put himself forward for the Conservative candidacy at Ripon in Yorkshire, and he was easily selected through local influence. Ripon had gone Liberal in 1906; Wood won it with a 1,000 vote majority in January 1910 and held it with a reduced majority in December 1910 . He remained Member of Parliament for Ripon until his elevation to
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6258-470: The Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (" Diarchy " – shared rule between British and Indians at the local level) and had promised that after ten years there would be a commission to inquire about a new constitution and to advise on whether further reforms were needed. Irwin accepted that greater self-government was necessary, as Indian national aspirations had grown since 1919. Birkenhead brought forward
6407-643: The Nehru Report (May 1928), advocating dominion status for India. However, there was also violence, including the death of Lala Lajpat Rai in November 1928 and the revenge attack of Bhagat Singh in December 1928. Other responses included the Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah 's 14 points (March 1929). In June 1929 , a new Labour government took office in the UK, with Ramsay MacDonald Prime Minister for
6556-582: The President of the Air Council Lord Rothermere , who soon resigned. However, Simon was attacked in the Northcliffe Press (Northcliffe was Rothermere's brother). Simon's Walthamstow constituency was split up at the "Coupon Election" in 1918 and he was defeated at the new Walthamstow East division by a margin of more than 4,000 votes. In 1919, he attempted to return to Parliament at
6705-613: The Royal Flying Corps for about a year, starting in the summer of 1917. His duties included purchasing supplies in Paris, where he married his second wife towards the end of 1917. Amidst questions as to whether it was appropriate for a serving officer to do so, Simon spoke in Trenchard's defence in Parliament when Trenchard resigned as Chief of Air Staff after Trenchard had fallen out with
6854-509: The Soviets signed an agreement with the Germans instead on 23 August. It has been suggested that Halifax should have led the negotiations himself, but that would not have suited Halifax's purpose because his government had not carried out the negotiations in good faith. The Foreign Office confirmed to the US chargé d'affaires on 8 August 1939 that "the military mission, which had now left Moscow, had been told to make every effort to prolong discussions until 1 October 1939". Halifax disclosed to
7003-432: The Spen Valley by-election . Lloyd George put up a coalition Liberal candidate in Spen Valley to keep Simon out and was active behind the scenes trying to see him defeated. Although the Coalition Liberals, who had formerly held the seat, were pushed into third place, Simon came second; in the view of Maurice Cowling ( The Impact of Labour 1920-4 ), his defeat by Labour marked the point at which Labour began to be seen as
7152-422: The University of Toronto . He was still a firm protégé of Stanley Baldwin . In June 1932, on the sudden death of Sir Donald Maclean , he returned to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Education, for the second time, having been apparently genuinely reluctant to accept. His views were somewhat old-fashioned: he declared: "We want a school to train them up to be servants and butlers." Irwin became Master of
7301-429: The election (in the event, it was not). In 1935, Simon was the last Home Secretary to attend a royal birth (of the present Duke of Kent ). In 1936 – despite pressure from the former Labour leader and MP George Lansbury , as well as from mayors of five East London Boroughs ( Hackney , Shoreditch , Stepney , Bethnal Green and Poplar ) and a 100,000 signature-strong petition from local East Londoners (organised by
7450-431: The All Souls Fellowship (both were successful). He became a Fellow of All Souls in 1897. Simon left Oxford at the end of 1898 and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1899. He was a pupil of A. J. Ram and then of Sir Reginald Acland . Like many barristers, his career got off to a slow start: he earned a mere £27 in his first year at the bar. At first, he earned some extra money by coaching candidates for
7599-416: The Bar all the more impressive. Simon was widowed in 1902 and took solace in his work. He became a successful lawyer, and in 1903, he acted for the British government in the Alaska boundary dispute . Even three years after his wife's death, he spent Christmas Day 1905 alone by walking aimlessly in France. Simon entered the House of Commons as a Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Walthamstow at
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#17328526838107748-414: The Bar around then. In October 1924, Simon moved the amendment that brought down the first Labour government. At that year's general election , the Conservatives were returned to power, and the Liberals were reduced to a rump of just over 40 MPs. Although Asquith, who had lost his seat, remained leader of the party, Lloyd George was elected chairman of the Liberal MPs by 29 votes to 9. Simon abstained in
7897-438: The British government's final policy goal always being India's attainment of dominion status. He also called for a round-table conference in London regarding this. Although this remained controversial among many conservatives in London, in reality there was no change in British policy as the promise was very vague and far in the future. The outcome of the Simon Commission was the Government of India Act 1935 , which called for
8046-405: The Conservatives for practical purposes. Simon was accused by Lloyd George of leaving "the slime of hypocrisy" as he crossed the floor (on another occasion, Lloyd George is said to have commented that he had "sat on the fence so long the iron has entered into his soul", but this quote is more difficult to verify). Simon was not initially included in Ramsay MacDonald 's National Government, which
8195-420: The Conservatives. Simon still supported free trade during the 1929-31 Parliament. In 1930, Simon headed the official inquiry into the R101 airship disaster. In June 1931, before the formation of the National Government, Simon resigned the Liberal whip. In September, Simon and his 30-or-so followers became the Liberal Nationals (later renamed the "National Liberals") and increasingly aligned themselves with
8344-441: The European order which might be destined to come about with the passage of time". Ignoring Eden's reservations, he did not object in principle to Hitler's designs on Austria , and parts of Czechoslovakia and Poland , although he stressed that only peaceful processes of change would be acceptable. Halifax was generally regarded publicly at the time as acting on behalf of the British government, and attempting to renew dialogue with
8493-411: The First Round Table Conference in London; no Congress delegates took part because Gandhi was in jail. In January 1931, Gandhi was released and at Irwin's invitation they had eight meetings together. Irwin wrote to his aged father that "it was rather like talking to someone who had stepped off another planet onto this for a short visit of a fortnight and whose mental outlook was quite other to that which
8642-404: The Foreign Affairs Committee on 10 July 1939: "Although the French were in favour of the military conversations commencing, the French Government thought that the military conversations would be spun out over a long time and as long as they were taking place we should be preventing Soviet Russia from entering the German camp." While Henry Roberts has spoken of Halifax's fellow Foreign Minister (of
8791-409: The Foreign Office, British defence strength was at its lowest point of the interwar period, which severely limited his freedom of action. Even Simon's colleagues thought that he had been a disastrous Foreign Secretary, "the worst since Æthelred the Unready ", as one wag put it. He was better at analysing a problem than at concluding and acting. Jenkins commented that he was a bad Foreign Secretary in
8940-427: The German government. Writing to Baldwin on the subject of the conversation between Carl Jacob Burckhardt (the League of Nations' Commissioner of Danzig ) and Hitler, Halifax said: "Nationalism and Racialism is a powerful force but I can't feel that it's either unnatural or immoral! I cannot myself doubt that these fellows are genuine haters of Communism, etc.! And I daresay if we were in their position we might feel
9089-487: The Home Office had been a mistake. In August 1916, Simon became chairman of the Royal Commission on the Arrest... and Subsequent Treatment of Francis Sheehy-Skeffington , Thomas Dickson and Patrick James McIntyre. The Commission published its report in September but without the evidential proceedings. After Asquith's fall in December 1916, Simon remained in opposition as an Asquithian Liberal. Simon proved his patriotism by serving as an officer on Trenchard 's staff in
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#17328526838109238-428: The Indian Statutory Commission, known as the Simon Commission , on the constitution of India . Upon the commission's arrival in Bombay in February 1928 , it was immediately met with a hartal and protestors holding black flags and banners reading " Simon Go Back " (coined by Yusuf Meherally ) involving prominent Indian political leaders such as Lala Lajpat Rai and Tanguturi Prakasam . The protests erupted due to
9387-423: The Jewish People's Council) – the then-home secretary Simon refused to ban a march organised by the British Union of Fascists (BUF) through the then predominantly Jewish East End of London. The BUF's announcement of this large-scale march was widely regarded "an act of provocation (...) aimed at (...) Jews and Communists". The ensuing events have since become known as the Battle of Cable Street . Two days after
9536-515: The Lord Irwin from 1925 until 1934 and the Viscount Halifax from 1934 until 1944, was a senior British Conservative politician of the 1930s. He held several senior ministerial posts during this time, most notably those of Viceroy of India from 1926 to 1931 and of Foreign Secretary between 1938 and 1940. He was one of the architects of the policy of appeasement of Adolf Hitler in 1936–1938, working closely with Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain . After Kristallnacht on 9–10 November 1938 and
9685-412: The Lords and restricting his active political career thereafter. As home secretary, he satisfied nobody. He tried to defend the Union of Democratic Control against Edward Carson 's attempt to prosecute it. However, he tried to ban The Times and the Daily Mail for criticising the government's conduct of the war but failed to obtain Cabinet support. He resigned in January 1916 in protest against
9834-420: The Lords in 1925. He was a Ditcher (i.e. opposed to the bitter end and ready to "die in the last ditch" to defend the House of Lords' right to veto legislation) in the disputes over the Parliament Act 1911 but really made little impact on politics before 1914. He was vigorously opposed to Welsh Disestablishment . Before the First World War , Wood was already a captain in the Queen's Own Yorkshire Dragoons ,
9983-408: The Middleton Hunt in 1932 and was elected as Chancellor of Oxford University in 1933. In 1934 he inherited the title Viscount Halifax on the death of his 94-year-old father. He helped Samuel Hoare draft what became the Government of India Act 1935 , the largest single piece of legislation of the 1931–1935 government . In June 1935, Baldwin became prime minister for the third time, and Halifax
10132-520: The Muslim League and also both Hindu Mahasabha and members of the Central Sikh League . An All-India Committee for Cooperation with the Simon Commission was established by the Council of India and by selection of the Viceroy, Lord Irwin . The members of the committee were: C. Sankaran Nair (chairman), Arthur Froom , Nawab Ali Khan, Shivdev Singh Uberoi, Zulfiqar Ali Khan, Hari Singh Gour , Abdullah Al-Mamun Suhrawardy , Kikabhai Premchand and Prof. M. C. Rajah . In Burma (Now known as Myanmar), which
10281-424: The Oxford Union in Hilary Term 1896, Simon won the Barstow Law Scholarship and graduated with a first in Greats in 1896. Simon's attendance at Wadham overlapped with those of F. E. Smith , the cricketer C. B. Fry and the journalist Francis Hirst . Smith, Fry and Simon played in the Wadham Rugby XV together. Simon and Smith began a rivalry that lasted throughout their legal and political careers over
10430-461: The Simon Commission, which was to determine the future of India, did not include a single Indian member. The Indian National Congress , at its December 1927 meeting in Madras (now Chennai ), resolved to boycott the Commission and challenged Lord Birkenhead , the Secretary of State for India , to draft a constitution that would be acceptable to the Indian populace. A faction of the Muslim League , led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah , also decided to boycott
10579-418: The Soviet Union), Maxim Litvinov , as having acute perceptive skills and an ability "to detect major trends in the 1930s and to anticipate the course of events indicates his tremendous understanding of the decade", Halifax had completely misunderstood Hitler. Halifax said: "Hitler had a very low opinion of the Soviet Union, and our action [in aligning with the Soviets] would confirm to him the idea that we were
10728-546: The Soviet regime, not least because of its atheism , Halifax was quicker than Chamberlain to realise that Britain should attempt to ally with the Soviets. He told the Foreign Affairs committee: "Soviet Russia is something between that of the unconquerable steamroller and looking on her as entirely useless militarily. We cannot ignore a country with a population of 180,000,000 people." The negotiations (in summer 1939) failed, and
10877-478: The anonymous 1940 book Guilty Men . Hitler's annexation of Austria in March 1938 made Halifax keener on British rearmament . Czechoslovakia was clearly next on the agenda, but neither Britain nor France believed they had the military capacity to support her, and in the summer of 1938, Halifax still wanted to urge the Czechoslovaks in private to make concessions to Germany, which was making demands regarding
11026-521: The bar exams. As a barrister, he relied on logic and reason rather than oratory and histrionics, and he excelled at simplifying complex issues. He was a brilliant advocate of complex cases before judges although rather less so before juries. Some of his work was done on the Western Circuit at Bristol. He worked exceptionally hard, often preparing his cases through the night several times a week. His initial lack of connections made his eventual success at
11175-522: The choice of the King. Halifax had the support of most of the Conservative Party and of the King and was acceptable to the Labour Party. His position as a peer was a merely technical barrier given the scale of the crisis, and Churchill reportedly was willing to serve under Halifax. As Lord Beaverbrook said, "Chamberlain wanted Halifax. Labour wanted Halifax. Sinclair wanted Halifax. The Lords wanted Halifax. The King wanted Halifax. And Halifax wanted Halifax." Only
11324-565: The commission and endorsed the final report. However, by 1933 he argued that British rule was alien to India and was unable to make the social and economic reforms necessary for India's progress. He became the British leader most sympathetic to Indian independence (as a dominion), preparing him for his role in deciding on Indian independence as British Prime Minister in 1947. John Simon, 1st Viscount Simon John Allsebrook Simon, 1st Viscount Simon , GCSI , GCVO , OBE , PC (28 February 1873 – 11 January 1954)
11473-578: The commission with black flags on which was written 'Simon Go Back'. Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi led the demonstrations against Simon Commission in Patna . Similar protests occurred in every major Indian city that the seven British MPs visited. One protest against the Simon Commission became infamous. On 30 October 1928, the Commission arrived at Lahore where it was met by protesters waving black flags. The protest
11622-447: The commission, and that MacDonald would then reply pointing out that the 1917 Montagu Declaration implied a commitment to Dominion status (i.e. that India should become completely self-governing, like Canada or Australia). Simon saw the drafts and had serious misgivings about the planned Round Table Conference. The exchange of letters did not mention Dominion status as the other commissioners did not favour it, although Simon did not report
11771-538: The commission. In face of the opposition from the Congress, F.E Smith wanted to publicize the meetings of the commission with "representative Moslems" in order to "terrify the immense Hindu population by apprehension that the Commission is being got hold of by the Moslems and may present a report altogether destructive of the Hindu population." However opinion was divided, with support for co-operation coming from some members of
11920-545: The committee, Simon had obtained a guarantee that he would not be opposed by a Conservative candidate at Spen Valley at the 1929 general election , and, indeed he was never again opposed by a Conservative. During the late 1920s and especially during the 1929-31 Parliament, in which Labour had no majority but continued in office with the help of the Liberals, Simon was seen as the leader of the minority of Liberal MPs who disliked Lloyd George's inclination to support Labour, rather than
12069-432: The context of existing British foreign policy, which was predicated on a broad consensus that in none of the democracies was there popular support for war, military pressure, or even rearmament. There was debate about the extent to which the dictatorships' very separate interests could be teased apart. It was clear that an alignment of Germany and Italy would divide Britain's forces in any general war and that, without at least
12218-691: The countries of Central and Eastern Europe to discourage them from coming under Germany's influence. With Hitler's lack of commitment regarding the Munich Agreement becoming clearer, Halifax worked steadily to assemble a stronger British position by pushing Chamberlain to take economic steps to underpin British interests in Eastern Europe and prevent additional military supplies from reaching Germany, such as tungsten . In January 1939, Halifax accompanied Chamberlain to Rome for talks with Mussolini. That month Halifax pushed for staff talks with France, in view of
12367-538: The danger of war with both Germany and Italy simultaneously. After Hitler broke the Munich agreement and occupied the rump of "Czecho-slovakia" (the hyphen had been added after Munich), Chamberlain gave a speech in Birmingham on 17 March 1939, pledging that Britain would go to war to defend Poland. Halifax had been one of the drivers in this change of policy. By March 1939, Eden, then out of office, observed that thanks to Halifax
12516-418: The date of the commission, and put it under Sir John Simon . Irwin recommended an all-British inquiry, as he thought that the Indian factions would not agree among themselves but would fall into line behind the results of the inquiry. David Dutton believes that this was "the most fateful mistake of his viceroyalty, and one he came bitterly to regret". In November 1927, the composition of the Simon Commission
12665-582: The departure of the mainstream Liberals, led by Herbert Samuel , who left the government in 1932 and formally went into Opposition in November 1933. Simon's tenure of office saw a number of important events in foreign policy, including the Japanese invasion of Manchuria , which had begun in September 1931, before he had taken office. Simon attracted particular opprobrium for his speech to the General Assembly of
12814-490: The depth of their feeling, which he came to share, that such a declaration would undermine the findings of the Commission and that Dominion status would now become a minimum demand for the Indian leaders rather than an ultimate goal. The author David Dutton finds it "curious" that Irwin, who had believed that Simon would not object to Dominion status, did not understand this. The Irwin Declaration of October 1929 committed Britain to eventual Dominion status for India. Despite such
12963-507: The diarist "Chips" Channon , Parliamentary Private Secretary to Halifax's junior minister Rab Butler , who opposed the guarantee, recorded (25 August 1939) that "the barometer of war kept shifting" and that "the Polish guarantee was [Halifax]'s pet scheme and favourite god-child". When Germany invaded Poland, Halifax refused any negotiations while German troops remained on Polish soil. However, he stood solid with Chamberlain, who delayed in giving
13112-457: The direction of foreign policy (and in line with prevailing opinion throughout Britain) that Nazi Germany 's remilitarization of the Rhineland , its "own backyard", would be difficult to oppose and should be welcomed insofar as it continued Germany's seeming progress towards normality after the tribulations of the post-First World War settlement. In 1936, Neville Chamberlain recorded that Halifax
13261-505: The event, the Labour Party Annual Conference denounced Sir John Simon for not banning the march and articulated a need for legislation. While the ensuing Public Order Act (1936) did successfully restrict politically extremist movements, it was nevertheless criticised for handing significant powers to the police to determine the routes of marches and processions. The Public Order act's legacy remains mixed and its authorship
13410-507: The eyes of Hobhouse (postmaster-general), Charles Masterman and the journalist C. P. Scott. Roy Jenkins believed that Simon was genuinely opposed to war. Early in 1915, Asquith rated Simon as "equal seventh" in his score list of the Cabinet, after his "malaise of last autumn". On 25 May 1915, Simon became Home Secretary in Asquith's new coalition government. He declined an offer of the job of Lord Chancellor, which would have meant going to
13559-494: The first war... I should speedily become a more or less honorary Prime Minister, living in a kind of twilight just outside the things that really mattered. The Labour leaders telephoned at 5 pm on the 10th to report that the party would take part in a coalition government, although it had to be under the leadership of someone other than Chamberlain. Accordingly, Chamberlain went to Buckingham Palace to tender his resignation, recommending that George VI ask Churchill to form
13708-442: The following morning, Halifax later wrote: I had no doubt at all in my own mind that for me to succeed him would create a quite impossible situation. Apart altogether from Churchill's qualities as compared with my own at this particular juncture, what would in fact be my position? Churchill would be running Defence, and in this connexion one could not but remember the relationship between Asquith and Lloyd George had broken down in
13857-643: The government are "now doing what we would wish". Halifax granted a guarantee to Poland on 31 March 1939, triggered by alarming intelligence of German preparations, in hopes of sending clear signals to Germany that, in Halifax's words, there would be "no more Munichs". The Foreign Office received intelligence in early April 1939 that Italy was about to invade Albania . At a Cabinet meeting on 5 April 1939, Halifax rejected these reports. Two days later, Italy invaded Albania; Halifax met Sir Alexander Cadogan and "decided we can't do anything to stop it". Although he disliked
14006-617: The highest-paid barristers of his generation and was believed to earn between £36,000 and £70,000 per annum (equivalent to £5,100,000 in 2023). It seemed for a while that he might abandon politics altogether. Simon spoke for Newfoundland in the Labrador boundary dispute with Canada before he announced his permanent retirement from the Bar. From 1927 to 1931, he chaired the Indian Constitutional Development Committee or
14155-458: The introduction of conscription of single men, which he thought a breach of Liberal principles. McKenna and Walter Runciman also opposed conscription but for different reasons: they thought that it would weaken British industry and wanted Britain to concentrate her war effort on the Royal Navy and supporting the other Allies with finance. In his memoirs, Simon would admit that his resignation from
14304-422: The invitation, and Halifax's trip to Germany had not been an attempt by Chamberlain to bypass the Foreign Office. In Germany, Göring gave Halifax the nickname "Halalifax" – after a German hunting call, Halali! . At Berchtesgaden, there was a long and tense meeting with Hitler, to whom he initially attempted to hand his coat, mistaking him for a footman. In these discussions, Halifax spoke of "possible alterations to
14453-546: The job. Other accounts describe Halifax demurring much more rapidly, and Churchill actively agreeing with him. Churchill also misdates the events of 9 May to the following day, and although his writing assistant William Deakin accepted responsibility for this error he later confirmed, in an interview in 1989, that Churchill's account was embellished after numerous retellings and was not meant to be taken seriously. The description of Chamberlain attempting to persuade Churchill to agree tacitly to Halifax's appointment as prime minister
14602-464: The lack of Indian representation on the commission, with the group composed of seven all-British Members of Parliament. His personality was already something of an issue: Neville Chamberlain wrote of him to the Viceroy of India Lord Irwin (12 August 1928): "I am always trying to like him, and believing I shall succeed when something crops up to put me off". Dutton describes Simon's eventual report as
14751-409: The last sentence was incorrect, however; Halifax did not want to become prime minister. He believed that Churchill's energy and leadership skills were superior to his own. Unlike Simon, Hoare and Chamberlain, Halifax was not the object of Labour hatred in May 1940. Dutton argues that he "drew back" because of "inner self-doubt". "Political ambition had never been the most compelling motivation". He had
14900-646: The meeting of the junior ministers who expressed disquiet at the Lloyd George Coalition. On 19 October 1922, he voted at the Carlton Club meeting for the Conservatives to fight the next election as an independent force. The Coalition ended and Bonar Law formed a purely Conservative government. Wood was promoted to the Cabinet on 24 October 1922 as President of the Board of Education . Some saw this as an improvement in
15049-399: The moral character of the government. Austerity policies left no room for constructive policies. Wood, who spent two days hunting each week, was neither interested nor particularly effective in the job but saw it as a stepping stone to greater things. He was not happy about Stanley Baldwin 's adoption of tariffs in December 1923, which saw the Conservatives lose their majority and give way to
15198-689: The morning of 18 December 1935 to discuss the public outcry over the Hoare–Laval Pact . Halifax, who was due to make a statement in the Lords that afternoon, insisted that the Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare must resign to save the government's position, causing J. H. Thomas , William Ormsby-Gore and Walter Elliott also to come out for his resignation. Anthony Eden was appointed Foreign Secretary in Hoare's place. The following year, Halifax said
15347-619: The next 30 years. Simon was, in David Dutton's view, a finer scholar than Smith. Although Smith thought Simon pompous, Simon, in the words of a contemporary, thought that Smith excelled at "the cheap score". A famous (although clearly untrue) malicious story had it that Smith and Simon had tossed a coin to decide which party to join. Simon was briefly a trainee leader writer for the Manchester Guardian under C. P. Scott . Simon shared lodgings with Leo Amery while both were studying for
15496-582: The nickname, possibly coined by Churchill, of the "Holy Fox". He was born with an atrophied left arm and no left hand, which did not stop him from enjoying riding, hunting and shooting. He had an artificial left hand with a spring-operated thumb, with which he could hold reins or open gates. Wood's childhood was divided mainly between two houses in Yorkshire: Hickleton Hall , near Doncaster, and Garrowby . He attended St David's Prep School from September 1892 and Eton College from September 1894. He
15645-485: The outbreak of war. On 1 November 1939, Halifax replied to an approach through Swedish channels that no peace was possible with Hitler in power. Even that aroused the wrath of Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty , who sent a private note to Halifax rebuking him that such talk was dangerous. Halifax remained opposed to any hint of a compromise peace during the Phoney War . On 8 May 1940, Chamberlain's government survived
15794-543: The pendulum had swung much further in Germany's favour. After Munich, Halifax (successfully) advised Chamberlain against capitalising on his popularity by calling a snap general election; instead, he urged (in vain) for Chamberlain to widen the National Coalition by offering jobs not just to Churchill and Eden but also to Labour and Liberal figures. Halifax was also disgusted by the anti-Jewish pogrom of Kristallnacht (10 November). He advocated British financial aid to
15943-452: The post of Chancellor of Oxford University in succession to Viscount Grey in 1933 since Simon was then at the depth of his unpopularity as Foreign Secretary. Lord Irwin was elected, and since he lived until 1959, the job did not fall vacant again in Simon's lifetime. There was talk of Neville Chamberlain, who dominated the government's domestic policy, becoming Foreign Secretary, but that would have been intolerable to MacDonald, who took
16092-419: The progress of the government scheme and suggest new steps for reform. The Secretary of State for India F.E Smith feared that the ruling Conservative government was facing imminent electoral defeat at the hands of the Labour Party , and hence feared that the commission would be filled by its members and sympathizers. Hence, the commission was appointed ahead of time, and seven MPs were selected to constitute
16241-533: The promised commission to examine the state of Indian constitutional affairs. He also ensured that there were no Indians in the commission, as he believed the Labour MPs and Indian members would join. The Viceroy of India Lord Irwin too supported the decision to exclude Indians as he too thought they would vote together with the Labour MPs but also because he thought the Indian representatives would fight each other. Some people in India were outraged and insulted that
16390-655: The provisions of the Pact "were not so frightfully different from those put forward by the Committee of Five [of the League]. But the latter were of respectable parentage: and the Paris ones were too much like the off-the-stage arrangements of nineteenth-century diplomacy". Effectively, although not formally, Halifax was deputy Foreign Secretary to Eden. Halifax was one of the signatories to the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 . In general they got on well. Halifax and Eden were in agreement about
16539-647: The report as "Hindu Document" and presented Fourteen Points of Jinnah in response to the Nehru Report. The Fourteen Points consisted of Muslim's minimum demands from the British Rule. By the time it was published the commission was already overshadowed by a declaration by the Viceroy of India Lord Irwin on 31 October 1929 which reinterpreted the 1917 declaration (which had led to the Mortagu-Chelmsford reforms ) as
16688-613: The same!" In December 1937, Halifax told the Cabinet that "we ought to get on good terms with Germany", as despite the best efforts of Eden and Chamberlain, Britain was still faced with the prospect of war with Germany, Italy and Japan . By February 1938, Halifax warned Chamberlain of strains in the Cabinet, and tried to broker a deal between Chamberlain and Eden. Eden resigned as Foreign Secretary on 20 February, in protest at Chamberlain's wish to make further concessions to Benito Mussolini , whom Eden regarded as an untrustworthy gangster, without gestures of good faith on his part. Halifax
16837-462: The second time and William Wedgwood Benn as Secretary of State for India. On 13 July 1929, Irwin arrived in England on leave, having chosen Lord Goschen to be his acting viceroy in India. Indeed, on his return to London, Irwin brought with him a "suggested" draft exchange of letters between MacDonald and Simon. His plan was for Simon to write proposing a Round Table Conference to discuss the findings of
16986-412: The spring. On 3 October 1938, Halifax defended the Munich Agreement in the House of Lords, in much more measured terms than the Prime Minister had done, not as a triumph but as the lesser of two evils. The Munich crisis had seen Halifax begin to take a stronger line than Chamberlain against further concessions to Germany. Andrew Roberts argues that from this point on, Halifax set his face firmly towards
17135-533: The status of the Sudeten Germans . Halifax remained in London and did not accompany Chamberlain on his dramatic flights to Germany in the autumn of 1938. This was once seen as a sign of Chamberlain's dominance of his Cabinet. It appears that a frank conversation with his pugnacious Permanent Secretary, Sir Alexander Cadogan , brought Halifax to the sharp realisation that the road to appeasement had taken Britain into
17284-439: The view of his contemporaries and ever since and concurs that he was better at analysing than solving. Neville Chamberlain thought he always sounded as though he was speaking from a brief. Simon's officials despaired of him since he had few thoughts of his own, solutions were imposed on him by others and he defended them only weakly. Leo Amery was a rare defender of Simon's record: in 1937, he recorded that Simon "really had been
17433-411: The vote. By this time he was increasingly anti-socialist and quite friendly to the Conservative leader Stanley Baldwin and clashed increasingly with Lloyd George. He stood down as deputy leader and returned to the Bar. Unlike Lloyd George, Simon opposed the 1926 general strike . On 6 May, the fourth day of the strike, he declared in the House of Commons that the strike was illegal and argued that it
17582-481: The way for improved maritime safety measures. Unusually for a government law officer, he was active in partisan political debate. When F. E. Smith first spoke from the Conservative front bench in 1912, Simon was put up next to oppose his old rival. He was promoted on 19 October 1913 to attorney-general , again succeeding Isaacs. Unusually for an attorney-general, he was made a full member of Cabinet, as Isaacs had been, rather than simply being invited to attend when he
17731-573: The welfare of the community rather than the good of the individual. With the Irish War of Independence then in progress Wood urged a federal solution. At this time he concentrated on housing and agriculture and Ireland. In May 1920, Wood accepted the Governor-Generalship of South Africa ; the offer was withdrawn after the South African government announced that it wanted a cabinet minister or
17880-467: Was Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey , of tea fame, also the prime minister who introduced the Great Reform Act of 1832 . Between 1886 and 1890, Wood's three older brothers died young, leaving him, at the age of nine, heir to his father's fortune and seat in the House of Lords . He was brought up in a world of religion and hunting. His religiosity as a devout Anglo-Catholic like his father earned him
18029-406: Was knighted later that month, as was then usual for government law officers (Asquith brushed aside his objections). At 37, he was the youngest solicitor-general since the 1830s. In February 1911, he successfully prosecuted Edward Mylius for criminal libel for claiming that King George V was a bigamist . As was then required by the law , he fought a by-election after his appointment. He
18178-435: Was MacDonald who took the lead in the negotiations. Simon himself did not think that Stresa would stop German rearmament – indeed, he told the House of Commons in 1934 that Germany's rearmament was "vital to peace" – but thought that it might be a useful deterrent against territorial aggression by Hitler. The first stirrings of Italian aggression towards Abyssinia (now Ethiopia ) were also then seen. During Simon's tenure of
18327-485: Was a Congregationalist minister, like three of his five brothers, and was pastor of Zion Chapel in Hulme , Manchester. His mother was a farmer's daughter and a descendant of Sir Richard Pole and his wife, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury . Congregational ministers were expected to move about the country. Simon was educated at King Edward's School, Bath , as his father was President of Somerset Congregational Union. He
18476-538: Was a British politician who held senior Cabinet posts from the beginning of the First World War to the end of the Second World War . He is one of three people to have served as Home Secretary , Foreign Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer , the others being Rab Butler and James Callaghan . He also served as Lord Chancellor , the most senior position in the British legal system. Beginning his career as
18625-466: Was a Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford . After a year at All Souls, he went on a Grand Tour of South Africa, India, Australia and New Zealand with Ludovic Heathcoat-Amory . In 1905, he returned to England for two years of study at All Souls. He visited Canada in 1907. He wrote a short biography of the Victorian cleric John Keble (1909). Wood had not stood in the 1906 UK general election , at which
18774-504: Was always saying he wanted to retire from public life. In May 1937, when Neville Chamberlain succeeded Baldwin as prime minister, Halifax became Lord President of the Council , as well as remaining Leader of the House of Lords. Chamberlain began increasingly to intervene directly in foreign policy, activity for which his background had not prepared him, and which caused increasing tension with Eden. In November 1937, Halifax visited Germany in
18923-453: Was an ally of Samuel Hoare , Philip Lloyd-Greame and Walter Elliot , all ambitious younger MPs in favour of progressive reform. In 1918, Wood and George Lloyd (later Lord Lloyd) wrote "The Great Opportunity", a tract aiming to set an agenda for a revived Conservative and Unionist Party following the end of the Lloyd George coalition . They urged the Conservative Party to concentrate on
19072-608: Was announced. All the leading Indian parties, including the Indian National Congress , boycotted it. Irwin assured Birkenhead that Simon could win over moderate Indian opinion. Simon arrived in Bombay on 3 February 1928. He achieved some limited successes, but Irwin became convinced that a new gesture would be necessary. Indian responses to Simon's arrival included the All-Parties Conference, a committee of which produced
19221-512: Was appointed Secretary of State for War . He was pleased to give up the Education job. He felt the country was unprepared for war, but he resisted the Chiefs of Staffs' demands for rearmament. In November 1935, after the general election , Halifax became Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords . By this time, Halifax was becoming increasingly influential in foreign affairs. Cabinet met on
19370-467: Was appointed Foreign Secretary on 21 February 1938, despite some criticism from Labour and elsewhere that so important a job was being given to a peer. Halifax commented "I have had enough obloquy for one lifetime" (i.e. as viceroy of India) before accepting appointment as Foreign Secretary. Chamberlain preferred him to the excitable Eden: "I thank God for a steady unruffled Foreign Secretary." Halifax's political line as Foreign Secretary must be seen in
19519-471: Was being denied to the untouchables who were ill-treated in the name of caste. The Simon Commission left England in January 1928. Almost immediately with Its arrival in Bombay on 3 February 1928, its members were confronted by throngs of protesters, although there were also some supporters among the crowds who saw it as the next step on the road to self-governance. A strike began and many people turned out to greet
19668-564: Was born on 16 April 1881 at Powderham Castle in Devon at the home of his maternal grandfather, William Courtenay, 11th Earl of Devon . He was born into a Yorkshire family, the sixth child and fourth son of Charles Wood, 2nd Viscount Halifax (1839–1934), and Lady Agnes Elizabeth Courtenay (1838–1919). His father was President of the English Church Union , which pushed for ecumenical reunion, in 1868, 1919, and 1927–1934. His great-grandfather
19817-468: Was clearly intended to intimidate, but had little effect. A few days later he was answered by Labour’s Sir Henry Slesser , who argued that a strike was only illegal if it could be proven to be a seditious conspiracy against the state. Pelling believes that Slesser was right as sympathetic strikes were not explicitly made illegal until the Trade Disputes and Trade Unions Act 1927 . Simon was then one of
19966-465: Was constituted because at the time of introducing the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms in 1919, the British Government had declared that a commission would be sent to India after ten years to examine the effects and operations of the constitutional reforms and to suggest further reforms. In November 1927, the British government appointed the Simon Commission two years ahead of schedule. The commission
20115-431: Was critically injured and died on 17 November 1928 due to the head injuries he had sustained. The Commission published its 2-volume report in May 1930. The commission proposed to abolish the diarchy, an extension to autonomy of provinces by establishing representative government in provinces. However it allowed the British governors of provinces to retain much of their emergency powers, hence in practice very little autonomy
20264-501: Was due to end. He accepted on the advice of his father (who lived to see him return). He was created Baron Irwin , of Kirby Underdale in the County of York , in December 1925. He left for India on 17 March 1926, and arrived in Bombay on 1 April 1926. Irwin was honoured with the GCSI and GCIE in 1926. Irwin relished the pomp of the viceroyalty. He was an able horseman, and stood 6' 5". He had
20413-527: Was formed in August 1931. Simon offered to give up his seat at Spen Valley to MacDonald if the latter had trouble holding Seaham (MacDonald held the seat in 1931 but lost it in 1935 ). On 5 November 1931, Simon was appointed Foreign Secretary when the National Government was reconstituted. The appointment was at first greeted with acclaim. Simon's Liberal Nationals continued to support protectionism and Ramsay MacDonald 's National Government after
20562-595: Was further agreed that Gandhi would join the Second Round Table Conference as the sole representative of the Congress. On 20 March 1931, Irwin paid tribute to Gandhi's honesty, sincerity and patriotism at a dinner given by ruling princes. On the evening of 23 March 1931, after a trial now widely viewed to have been unlawful and unfair, the Indian revolutionaries Bhagat Singh , Shivaram Rajguru and Sukhdev Thapar were hanged, in an execution brought forward by 12 hours. The exact extent of political interference
20711-578: Was honoured with appointment as a KCVO in 1911. Asquith referred to him as "the Impeccable" for his intellectual self-assurance, but after a series of social encounters, he wrote that "The Impeccable" was becoming "The Inevitable". Along with Isaacs, Simon represented the Board of Trade at the public inquiry into the sinking of the RMS ; Titanic in 1912; their close questioning of witnesses helped to prepare
20860-458: Was included in the terms of reference of the Simon Commission, there was strong suspicion either that Burma's unpopular union with India would continue, or that the constitution recommended for Burma by the commission would be less generous than that chosen for India; these suspicions resulted in tension and violence in Burma leading to the rebellion of Saya San . The commission found that the education
21009-470: Was initially sympathetic to Lord Lansdowne 's proposal for a compromise peace , but ultimately demanded all-out victory and a punitive peace. Wood was unopposed in the UK general elections of 1918 , 1922 , 1923 , and 1924 . He was a signatory to the April 1919 Lowther Petition calling for harsher peace terms against Germany in the Treaty of Versailles then being negotiated. In the 1918–1922 Parliament, Wood
21158-517: Was led by the Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai , who had moved a resolution against the Commission in the Legislative Assembly of Punjab in February 1928. The protesters blocked the road in order to prevent the commission members from leaving the railway station. In order to make way for the commission, the local police led by Superintendent James Scott began beating protesters. Lala Lajpat Rai
21307-501: Was not entitled to the legal privileges of the Trade Disputes Act 1906 and that the union bosses would be "liable to the utmost farthing" in damages for the harm that they inflicted on businesses and for inciting the men to break their contracts of employment. Simon was highly respected as an authority on the law but was neither popular nor seen as a political leader. Trade Union historian Henry Pelling comments that Simon's speech
21456-614: Was not happy at school as he was not talented either at sport or classics. He went up to Christ Church, Oxford , in October 1899. He took no part in student politics but blossomed academically, graduating with a first class degree in Modern History. Whilst at Oxford he was a member of the private all-male dining society the Bullingdon Club , known for its wealthy members, grand banquets, and bad behaviour. From November 1903 until 1910, he
21605-567: Was regulating most of the affairs on the planet to which he had descended". But they had mutual respect based on their respective religious faiths. The fortnight-long discussions resulted in the Gandhi–Irwin Pact of 5 March 1931, after which the Civil Disobedience Movement and the boycott of British goods were suspended in exchange for a Second Round Table Conference that represented all interests. The salient points were: It
21754-408: Was required. He was already being tipped as a potential future Liberal prime minister. He was the leader of the (unsuccessful) cabinet rebels against Winston Churchill 's 1914 naval estimates. Asquith thought that Simon had organised "a conclave of malcontents" (Lloyd George, Reginald McKenna , Samuel, Charles Hobhouse and Beauchamp ). He wrote to Asquith that the "loss of WC, though regrettable,
21903-470: Was strongly opposed by the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress , and prominent Indian leaders including Nehru , Gandhi , and Jinnah , because it contained only British members and no Indians. However, it was supported by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar , Periyar E. V. Ramasamy and Chaudhary Chhotu Ram. Prominent Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai led a protest against the commission in Lahore . He suffered
22052-580: Was then a scholar of Fettes College in Edinburgh , where he was Head of School and won many prizes. He failed to win a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford , but won an open scholarship to Wadham College, Oxford . He arrived at Wadham in 1892. He achieved Seconds in Mathematics and Classical Moderations . He spoke in support of Herbert Samuel for South Oxfordshire in the 1895 election and, after two terms as Junior Treasurer, became President of
22201-558: Was to be given to the provinces. Most notably the commission's report did not mention dominion status at all. The commission also recommended to retain separate electorates as long as inter-communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims remained. In September 1928, ahead of the commission's release, Motilal Nehru presented his Nehru Report to counter its charges that Indians could not find a constitutional consensus among themselves. This report advocated that India be given dominion status with complete internal self-government. Jinnah declared
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