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97-612: The T-10K-3, an unfinished prototype of the Su-33 , was acquired by SAC from Ukraine in 2001 and is claimed to have been studied extensively and reverse-engineered , with development on the J-15 beginning immediately afterward. While the J-15 appears to be structurally based on the prototype of Su-33, the fighter features indigenous Chinese technologies as well as avionics from the Shenyang J-11B program. In February 2018, discussions about replacing

194-853: A STOBAR carrier. In October 2024, Chinese state media reported the J-15T and J-15D flying with Liaoning and Shandong in the South China Sea, suggesting the aircraft had entered service. Both aircraft were officially revealed at the China International Aviation & Aerospace Exhibition the next month. Data from Jianyue (Tianjin) Information Technology, CCTV (Sun Cong interview transcript) General characteristics Performance Armament Avionics Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Su-33 The Sukhoi Su-33 ( Russian : Сухой Су -33; NATO reporting name : Flanker-D )

291-426: A shock wave . The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-flow velocity (see Reynolds number ) fluids, is the central difference between the supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics regimes. In aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly supersonic. In the 1970s, the term generally came to refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound) and above. The hypersonic regime

388-468: A Chinese purchase of at least 50 Su-33s, about which China was reluctant as it believed the aircraft would become outdated in a few years. China hence decided on an indigenous variant instead of continuing to assemble the J-11, the licensed Chinese version of Su-27 . The J-15 program was officially started in 2006 with the codename Flying Shark. The program goal was to develop a naval-capable fighter aircraft from

485-482: A continuum. Continuum flow fields are characterized by properties such as flow velocity , pressure , density , and temperature , which may be functions of position and time. These properties may be directly or indirectly measured in aerodynamics experiments or calculated starting with the equations for conservation of mass, momentum , and energy in air flows. Density, flow velocity, and an additional property, viscosity , are used to classify flow fields. Flow velocity

582-584: A domestic version. Various aircraft are alleged to have originated partially from the Su-33, such as the Shenyang J-15 . Photos of Shenyang aircraft designers posing in front of a T-10K carrier based fighter prototype strongly suggest that the J-15 is directly related to T-10K. Negotiations stagnated as the Shenyang Aircraft company sought to reduce Russian content in the aircraft, while Sukhoi wanted to ensure

679-410: A flow field) enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. In many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight: lift , drag , thrust , and weight . Of these, lift and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to air flow over a solid body. Calculation of these quantities is often founded upon the assumption that the flow field behaves as

776-438: A fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed that "information" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to rest. In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing

873-414: A fundamental relationship between pressure, density, and flow velocity for incompressible flow known today as Bernoulli's principle , which provides one method for calculating aerodynamic lift. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows. The Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in

970-472: A level of income from future upgrades and modifications made to the J-11 . India was also viewed as another potential operator of the Su-33. The Indian Navy planned to acquire the Su-33 for its aircraft carrier, INS  Vikramaditya , the refurbished Soviet Admiral Gorshkov , which was sold to India in 2004. In the end, the rival MiG-29K was opted for, because of the Su-33's outdated avionics. The size of

1067-499: A new establishment in Crimea , named NITKA, for Aviation Research and Training Complex. In 1981, the Soviet government ordered the abandonment of the catapult system as part of an overall downsize of Project 1143.5 carriers, which also included cancelling the fifth Project 1143 carrier and Varyag . A takeoff ramp was installed at the complex, where takeoffs would be executed to ensure that

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1164-585: A phased-array radar, thrust vectoring nozzles, and long-range anti-ship missiles. In September 2016, it was announced the Su-33 will be outfitted with new sighting and computing system SVP-24 from the Russian company Gefest & T, that will allow the aircraft to use unguided bombs with a similar precision as guided ones, giving it an ability of a strike fighter . The SVP-24 takes into account data such as current plane's location together with flight parameters, target data and environmental parameters and determines

1261-410: A range of flow velocities just below and above the local speed of sound (generally taken as Mach 0.8–1.2). It is defined as the range of speeds between the critical Mach number , when some parts of the airflow over an aircraft become supersonic , and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2 , when all of the airflow is supersonic. Between these speeds, some of the airflow is supersonic, while some of

1358-521: A rational basis for the development of heavier-than-air flight and a number of other technologies. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to compressible flow , turbulence , and boundary layers and has become increasingly computational in nature. Modern aerodynamics only dates back to the seventeenth century, but aerodynamic forces have been harnessed by humans for thousands of years in sailboats and windmills, and images and stories of flight appear throughout recorded history, such as

1455-510: A reinforced structure and undercarriage to withstand the great stress experienced upon landing, particularly quick descents and non-flare landings (landings where the aircraft does not 'float' and slow its descent rate just prior to touchdown). The leading edge slats , flaperons and other control surfaces are enlarged to provide increased lift and manoeuvrability at low speeds, although the wingspan remains unchanged. The wings feature double-slotted flaps and outboard drooping ailerons ; in total,

1552-409: A runway length of 195 m, and the two forward positions have a runway length of 105 m. The take-off weight of the J-15 depends on the launch position and carrier speed. For ship speed at 28 knots, J-15's maximum take-off weight is 33 tons (with 9 tons of internal fuel and a 6.5-ton external payload) for the waist position. The maximum weight is 28 tons (9-ton internal fuel and 1.5-ton external payload) for

1649-588: Is a Soviet/Russian all-weather carrier-based twin-engine air superiority fighter designed by Sukhoi and manufactured by Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Production Association , derived from the Su-27 and initially known as the Su-27K . Compared with the Su-27, the Su-33 has a strengthened undercarriage and structure, folding wings and stabilators , all for carrier operations. The Su-33 has canards , and its wings are larger than

1746-418: Is a flow in which density is constant in both time and space. Although all real fluids are compressible, a flow is often approximated as incompressible if the effect of the density changes cause only small changes to the calculated results. This is more likely to be true when the flow speeds are significantly lower than the speed of sound. Effects of compressibility are more significant at speeds close to or above

1843-448: Is a solution in one dimension to both the momentum and energy conservation equations. The ideal gas law or another such equation of state is often used in conjunction with these equations to form a determined system that allows the solution for the unknown variables. Aerodynamic problems are classified by the flow environment or properties of the flow, including flow speed , compressibility , and viscosity . External aerodynamics

1940-416: Is a subset of the supersonic regime. Hypersonic flow is characterized by high temperature flow behind a shock wave, viscous interaction, and chemical dissociation of gas. The incompressible and compressible flow regimes produce many associated phenomena, such as boundary layers and turbulence. The concept of a boundary layer is important in many problems in aerodynamics. The viscosity and fluid friction in

2037-503: Is associated with the frictional forces in a flow. In some flow fields, viscous effects are very small, and approximate solutions may safely neglect viscous effects. These approximations are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity is not neglected are called viscous flows. Finally, aerodynamic problems may also be classified by the flow environment. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes (e.g. around an airplane wing), while internal aerodynamics

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2134-407: Is called laminar flow . Aerodynamics is a significant element of vehicle design , including road cars and trucks where the main goal is to reduce the vehicle drag coefficient , and racing cars , where in addition to reducing drag the goal is also to increase the overall level of downforce . Aerodynamics is also important in the prediction of forces and moments acting on sailing vessels . It

2231-409: Is called potential flow and allows the differential equations that describe the flow to be a simplified version of the equations of fluid dynamics , thus making available to the aerodynamicist a range of quick and easy solutions. In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of

2328-533: Is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the modern sense in the eighteenth century, although observations of fundamental concepts such as aerodynamic drag were recorded much earlier. Most of the early efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight , which was first demonstrated by Otto Lilienthal in 1891. Since then, the use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis, empirical approximations, wind tunnel experimentation, and computer simulations has formed

2425-497: Is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket are examples of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe. Aerodynamic problems can also be classified according to whether

2522-415: Is the study of flow through passages inside solid objects (e.g. through a jet engine). Unlike liquids and solids, gases are composed of discrete molecules which occupy only a small fraction of the volume filled by the gas. On a molecular level, flow fields are made up of the collisions of many individual of gas molecules between themselves and with solid surfaces. However, in most aerodynamics applications,

2619-427: Is the study of the motion of air , particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dynamics and its subfield of gas dynamics , and is an important domain of study in aeronautics . The term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that "gas dynamics" applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and

2716-426: Is used because gas flows with a Mach number below that value demonstrate changes in density of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum 5% density change occurs at the stagnation point (the point on the object where flow speed is zero), while the density changes around the rest of the object will be significantly lower. Transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flows are all compressible flows. The term Transonic refers to

2813-418: Is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers resort to aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity , when calculating wind loads in the design of large buildings, bridges , and wind turbines . The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation , gas piping , and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect

2910-468: Is used to classify flows according to speed regime. Subsonic flows are flow fields in which the air speed field is always below the local speed of sound. Transonic flows include both regions of subsonic flow and regions in which the local flow speed is greater than the local speed of sound. Supersonic flows are defined to be flows in which the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound everywhere. A fourth classification, hypersonic flow, refers to flows where

3007-450: The Varyag , Oryol and Ulyanovsk had been commissioned, a total of 72 production airframes would have been built; the early-airborne warning and MiG-29K would also have proceeded, instead of being abandoned. Only 24 examples were built at the time Varyag was sold to China. The Su-27K was introduced in the mid-1990s and from December 1995 to March 1996, Admiral Kuznetsov set sail in

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3104-483: The Ancient Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus . Fundamental concepts of continuum , drag , and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle and Archimedes . In 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. Dutch - Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli followed in 1738 with Hydrodynamica in which he described

3201-533: The China SignPost believes the J-15 "likely exceeds or matches the aerodynamic capabilities of virtually any fighter aircraft currently operated by regional militaries, except for the U.S. F-22 Raptor ", alleging that the J-15 likely possesses a 10% greater thrust-to-weight ratio and 25% lower wing loading than the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet . However, one of the authors of that same article described

3298-617: The Mediterranean Sea , carrying two Su-25UTGs , nine Ka-27s , and 13 Su-27Ks. The aircraft officially entered service on 31 August 1998 under new designation "Su-33". The 279th independent Shipborne Assault Aviation Regiment based at Severomorsk-3 air base became the first unit operating the variant. In 2009, it was announced the Russian Navy will procure 24 MiG-29Ks to replace its fleet of about 19 Su-33s in service, with deliveries to be completed by 2015. However, in 2015, Chief of

3395-592: The Russian Defence Ministry , at least 30 militants including three field commanders were killed due to the strikes. On 5 December 2016, a Su-33 crashed into the Mediterranean Sea after the arrestor cable broke up during the aircraft's second landing attempt on board the aircraft carrier. The pilot managed to eject and survived without injuries. Internationally, the People’s Republic of China

3492-431: The Shenyang J-15 , and to encourage orders from the Russian Navy. Major upgrades to the aircraft included more powerful (132 kN, 29,800 lbf) AL-31-F-M1 engines and a larger weapons carriage; upgrades to the radar and weapons were not possible at the time due to funding constraints. According to military author Richard Fisher, it has been speculated that further modifications to a new production batch would include

3589-859: The United Engine Corporation announced it has resumed the production of upgraded AL-31F series 3 engines for all remaining 18 Su-33 fighters. The first batch of engines was delivered to the customer the same year. On 15 November 2016, in the course of Russia's large-scale military operations against terrorist groups in Syria, Su-33s operated from the Admiral Kuznetsov aircraft carrier in the type's first combat employment, striking ISIL and Al-Nusra terrorist facilities in Syria's Idlib and Homs provinces with 500 kg precision ammunition. The main targets were ammunition warehouses, gathering and training centers and weapon production plants. According to

3686-535: The Western Pacific . In July 2018, PLAAF Lieutenant General Zhang Honghe reported that a carrier-based replacement for the J-15 was in development after two crashes and "unpardonable mechanical failures". One issue was the limited payload due to the weight of the aircraft - the empty weight is 17,500 kg (38,600 lb) compared to the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet's 14,600 kg - and operating from

3783-416: The flow speed is below, near or above the speed of sound . A problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when

3880-400: The leading edge root extensions (LERX). The rear radome is shortened and reshaped to prevent its striking the deck during high-Alpha ( angle of attack ) landings. Compared with the rival MiG-29K, the Su-33's maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) is 50% higher; fuel capacity is more than double, allowing it to fly 80% further at altitude (or 33% at sea level). The MiG-29K can spend as much time as

3977-565: The J-15 in another article as no game changer; the reliance on ski-jump launches and lack of Chinese carrier-based aerial refueling capabilities are believed to greatly reduce its effective combat range . In 2014, it was revealed that the J-15 is capable of aerial refueling, using the UPAZ-1 buddy refueling pod, which can be carried by another J-15. Hu Siyuan of the PLA National Defense University said that "the current weak point of

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4074-730: The J-15 is its Russian-made AL-31 engines, which are less powerful than that of the American F-35 fighter". The J-15's chief designer, Sun Cong of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, has said that the J-15 could match the F/A-18 in bomb load, combat radius and mobility. However, in a similar statement, he said more work was required on its electronics and combat systems. Rear Admiral Yin Zhuo stated that

4171-500: The J-15T prototype with CATOBAR capability began test flight at PLAN land-based catapult facilities. In November 2020, Jane's reported that SAC had produced a second prototype of the J-15T fighter aircraft. In 2021, analysts reported work on an upgraded variant, referred to as the "J-15B", with new avionics, engines, and CATOBAR launch capability. The upgrade variant of J-15 is capable of launching newer PL-10 and PL-15 missiles. The J-11D upgrade program reportedly contributed to

4268-593: The Naval Aviation General Major Igor Kozhin, announced that a second fighter regiment would be formed to augment the current force, with the MiG-29Ks to be used by the new unit. The existing 19 Su-33s were to be refurbished for further use. In September 2016, at least six Su-33s were upgraded with the SVP-24 targeting system as the aircraft were preparing for their combat deployment to Syria. In 2017,

4365-506: The Shenyang J-11, with technologies reverse-engineered from T-10K-3, a Soviet Su-33 prototype acquired from Ukraine . The first J-15 prototype made its maiden flight on August 31, 2009, believed to be powered by Russian-supplied Saturn AL-31 turbofan engines . Video and still images of the flight were released in July 2010, showing the same basic airframe design as the Su-33. On May 7, 2010,

4462-667: The Su-27 for a slower stall speed. The Su-33 has upgraded engines and a twin nose wheel, and is air refuelable . First used in operations in 1995 aboard the aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov , the fighter officially entered service in August 1998, by which time the designation "Su-33" was used. Following the break-up of the Soviet Union and the subsequent downsizing of the Russian Navy , only 24 aircraft were produced. Attempted sales to China and India fell through. With plans to retire

4559-620: The Su-27K; by 1994, it had successfully passed the State Acceptance Trials. During 1990–1991, seven production aircraft were rolled out. The first of two known versions of the Su-33, the twin-seat Su-33UB, made its first flight in April 1999. The aircraft, piloted by Viktor Pugachyov and Sergey Melnikov, flew for 40 minutes near Ramenskoye Airport . The Su-33UB (Initially named as Su-27KUB, "Korabelny Uchebno-Boevo ", or "carrier combat trainer")

4656-453: The Su-27Ks and MiG-29Ks would be able to operate from carriers. Both Sukhoi and Mikoyan modified their prototypes to validate the takeoff ramp. Three Sukhoi T10s (−3, −24 and −25), along with an Su-27UB, were used for takeoffs from the simulated ramp. The first of these tests were undertaken by Nikolai Sadovnikov on 28 August 1982. Flight tests indicated the need for a change in ramp design, and it

4753-470: The Su-33 on station by using external fuel tanks, but this limits its ordnance capacity. The Su-33 can fly at speeds as low as 240 km/h (150 mph), in comparison the MiG-29K needs to maintain a minimum of 250 km/h (160 mph) for effective control. However, the MiG-29K carries more air-to-ground munitions than the Su-33. The Su-33 is more expensive and physically larger than the MiG-29K, limiting

4850-628: The Su-33 once they reach the end of their service life, the Russian Navy ordered the MiG-29K as a replacement in 2009. During the 1970s, the Yakovlev Yak-38 , then the Soviet Navy 's only operational carrier-based fixed-wing combat aircraft, was found to be unable to undertake its role due to limited range and payload, which severely hampered the capability of the Soviet Navy's Project 1143 carriers. It

4947-508: The Su-33 reliant on other radar platforms and airborne warning and control system (AWACS) aircraft like the Kamov Ka-31 early-warning helicopter. The R-27EM missiles have the capability to intercept anti-ship missiles . The infra-red search and track (IRST) system is placed to provide better downward visibility. With the break-up of the Soviet Union, the Russian Navy was dramatically downsized, with many shipbuilding programmes stopped. If

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5044-583: The Su-33 reportedly led to concerns over potential difficulties in operating it off the Indian carriers, a constraint not shared by the smaller MiG-29K. Data from KnAAPO, Sukhoi, airforce-technology.com, Gordon and Davison, Williams, General characteristics Performance Armament Avionics Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Aerodynamic Aerodynamics ( Ancient Greek : ἀήρ aero (air) + Ancient Greek : δυναμική (dynamics))

5141-596: The Su-33. China had previously obtained a manufacturing license for Su-27 production. Sukhoi is working on a more advanced version, the Su-33K, a development to integrate the advanced technologies of the Su-35 fighters into the older Su-33 airframe. However, worries over other Chinese intentions emerged when it was reported that China had acquired one of the T-10Ks, a Su-33 prototype, from Ukraine, potentially to study and reverse engineer

5238-412: The air is approximated as being significant only in this thin layer. This assumption makes the description of such aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically. In aerodynamics, turbulence is characterized by chaotic property changes in the flow. These include low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time. Flow that is not turbulent

5335-487: The aircraft appeared in several Chinese media outlets including Xinhua and China's main military newspaper, discussing that it belongs to the 4th- or 4.5-generation fighters . Thus, the J-15 is viewed as an interim carrier-based fighter until a fifth-generation successor enters service, one that is based on the Shenyang J-35 . China has sought to purchase Su-33s from Russia on several occasions — an unsuccessful offer

5432-475: The aircraft conducted its first takeoff from a simulated ski-jump on land. On November 25, 2012, the aircraft successfully performed its first takeoff and landing on Liaoning , China's first operational aircraft carrier . The twin-seat variant, J-15S, made its maiden flight on November 4, 2012. The twin-seat electronic warfare variant, similar to the role of United States Navy 's EA-18G Growler , dubbed J-15D, took its maiden flight in 2018. In 2016,

5529-512: The aircraft's air combat capabilities were better than that of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. However, he also stated that its ability to attack land and sea targets was slightly inferior to the F/A-18E/F; it is also stated that its electronic equipment meets the standards of those on a fifth-generation fighter . The J-15 may be operating from the aircraft carriers Liaoning and Shandong . The carriers have two launch positions. The waist position has

5626-563: The airflow is not supersonic. Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem. Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is "told" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is, in fact, an infinitesimal pressure difference propagating through

5723-576: The amount of change of density in the flow. When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the assumption that density is constant may be made. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the flow is called compressible. In air, compressibility effects are usually ignored when the Mach number in the flow does not exceed 0.3 (about 335 feet (102 m) per second or 228 miles (366 km) per hour at 60 °F (16 °C)). Above Mach 0.3,

5820-431: The carrier's jet blast deflectors were too close to the engine nozzles when raised at an angle of 60°; thus an improvised solution held the deflectors at 45°. However, when the aircraft was in front of it for longer than the maximum six seconds, the shield's water pipes exploded. The pilot, Pugachyov, reduced engine throttle, accidentally causing the detents (blocks used to restrain aircraft from accelerating) to retract and

5917-485: The carrier-borne aircraft and special equipment for the landing flight had gone through strict tests, and fighter jets can be deployed on the carrier. In December 2013, Chinese media reported that mass production of J-15s in full operational condition with combat markings had begun. In January 2017, Liaoning conducted take-off and landing drills with its J-15s in the South China Sea after its first deployment into

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6014-690: The choice between statistical mechanics and the continuous formulation of aerodynamics. The assumption of a fluid continuum allows problems in aerodynamics to be solved using fluid dynamics conservation laws . Three conservation principles are used: Together, these equations are known as the Navier–Stokes equations , although some authors define the term to only include the momentum equation(s). The Navier–Stokes equations have no known analytical solution and are solved in modern aerodynamics using computational techniques . Because computational methods using high speed computers were not historically available and

6111-456: The constraints of carrier aviation. The airframe of the J-15 is structurally reinforced for carrier landing and launching, with the addition of a tailhook and strengthened landing gears. The aircraft incorporated a higher portion of composite materials than the Sukhoi Su-33 to save weight and improve aerodynamic performance, allowing for a slower landing speed compared to Su-33. An article in

6208-457: The continuum assumption is reasonable. The continuum assumption is less valid for extremely low-density flows, such as those encountered by vehicles at very high altitudes (e.g. 300,000 ft/90 km) or satellites in Low Earth orbit . In those cases, statistical mechanics is a more accurate method of solving the problem than is continuum aerodynamics. The Knudsen number can be used to guide

6305-463: The desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and propulsion systems, continues to motivate new research in aerodynamics, while work continues to be done on important problems in basic aerodynamic theory related to flow turbulence and the existence and uniqueness of analytical solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations. Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called

6402-437: The discrete molecular nature of gases is ignored, and the flow field is assumed to behave as a continuum . This assumption allows fluid properties such as density and flow velocity to be defined everywhere within the flow. The validity of the continuum assumption is dependent on the density of the gas and the application in question. For the continuum assumption to be valid, the mean free path length must be much smaller than

6499-403: The feasibility of ski-jump operations. The pilots also practised no-flare landings before making an actual landing on a carrier deck. It was another two years before Tbilisi , subsequently renamed Admiral Kuznetsov , left the shipyard. Viktor Pugachyov, piloting the second Su-27K, became the first Russian to conventionally land aboard an aircraft carrier on 1 November 1989. It was found that

6596-441: The fighter to move forwards. The aircraft was quickly stopped; Pugachyov later took off without the use of blast deflectors or detents. Since then, a Kamov Ka-27PS search-and-rescue helicopter was flown close to the carrier in case of an accident. During the following three-week period, 227 sorties were amassed, along with 35 deck landings. Flight testing continued afterwards, and on 26 September 1991, naval pilots began testing

6693-599: The first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester , Martin Kutta , and Nikolai Zhukovsky independently created theories that connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary layers . As aircraft speed increased designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near

6790-453: The first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier–Stokes equations . The Navier–Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow but are difficult to solve for the flow around all but the simplest of shapes. In 1799, Sir George Cayley became the first person to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight ( weight , lift , drag , and thrust ), as well as the relationships between them, and in doing so outlined

6887-477: The flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid "knows" the object is there by seemingly adjusting its movement and is flowing around it. In a supersonic flow, however, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally reaches the object it strikes it and the fluid is forced to change its properties – temperature , density , pressure , and Mach number —in an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called

6984-458: The flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree on the precise definition of hypersonic flow. Compressible flow accounts for varying density within the flow. Subsonic flows are often idealized as incompressible, i.e. the density is assumed to be constant. Transonic and supersonic flows are compressible, and calculations that neglect the changes of density in these flow fields will yield inaccurate results. Viscosity

7081-570: The flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; a rough definition considers flows with Mach numbers above 5 to be hypersonic. The influence of viscosity on the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems may encounter only very small viscous effects, in which case viscosity can be considered to be negligible. The approximations to these problems are called inviscid flows . Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous flows. An incompressible flow

7178-477: The former Soviet carrier Varyag as the centrepiece. At the sixth Zhuhai Airshow in late 2006, Lieutenant General Aleksander Denisov publicly confirmed at a news conference that China had approached Russia for the possible purchase of Su-33s, and negotiations were to start in 2007. On 1 November 2006, the Xinhua News Agency published the information on its military website that China planned to introduce

7275-532: The forward position. However, when the carrier moves at 20 knots, MTOW at the waist position is reduced to 31 tons. On 25 November 2012, Chinese media reported that two J-15s had made arrested landings on Liaoning .. The first landing was made by pilot Dai Mingmeng (戴明盟). Luo Yang , the aircraft's head of production and designer, died the same day. PLA Daily newspaper indicated that the first five naval pilots (including Dai) conducted J-15 fighter landings and takeoffs. Test and training program officials confirmed

7372-465: The high computational cost of solving these complex equations now that they are available, simplifications of the Navier–Stokes equations have been and continue to be employed. The Euler equations are a set of similar conservation equations which neglect viscosity and may be used in cases where the effect of viscosity is expected to be small. Further simplifications lead to Laplace's equation and potential flow theory. Additionally, Bernoulli's equation

7469-433: The length scale of the application in question. For example, many aerodynamics applications deal with aircraft flying in atmospheric conditions, where the mean free path length is on the order of micrometers and where the body is orders of magnitude larger. In these cases, the length scale of the aircraft ranges from a few meters to a few tens of meters, which is much larger than the mean free path length. For such applications,

7566-532: The numbers able to be deployed on an aircraft carrier. The Su-33 carries guided missiles such as the R-73 (four) and R-27E (six) on twelve hardpoints, supplemented by the 150-round 30 mm GSh-30-1 . It can carry an assortment of unguided rockets, bombs and cluster bombs for secondary air-to-ground missions. The aircraft can be used in both night and day operations at sea. The radar used, "Slot Back", has been speculated to have poor multi-target tracking, making

7663-443: The optimal trajectory for unguided ammunition. It is believed, the installation of modern targeting systems will increase the capability of the Su-33 fighters close to Su-30SM level. The second stage of the modernization is to include installation of more powerful engines and detection systems, according to Naval Aviation Chief Major-General Igor Kozhin. To adapt the original Su-27 for naval operations, Sukhoi first incorporated

7760-403: The path toward achieving heavier-than-air flight for the next century. In 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel , allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond d'Alembert , Gustav Kirchhoff , and Lord Rayleigh . In 1889, Charles Renard , a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict

7857-579: The performance of the engine. Urban aerodynamics are studied by town planners and designers seeking to improve amenity in outdoor spaces, or in creating urban microclimates to reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics describes ways in which atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affect ecosystems. Aerodynamic equations are used in numerical weather prediction . Sports in which aerodynamics are of crucial importance include soccer , table tennis , cricket , baseball , and golf , in which most players can control

7954-485: The point where entire aircraft can be designed using computer software, with wind-tunnel tests followed by flight tests to confirm the computer predictions. Understanding of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has matured since the 1960s, and the goals of aerodynamicists have shifted from the behaviour of fluid flow to the engineering of a vehicle such that it interacts predictably with the fluid flow. Designing aircraft for supersonic and hypersonic conditions, as well as

8051-455: The power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal , the first person to become highly successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift and low drag. Building on these developments as well as research carried out in their own wind tunnel, the Wright brothers flew the first powered airplane on December 17, 1903. During the time of

8148-421: The problem flow should be described using compressible aerodynamics. According to the theory of aerodynamics, a flow is considered to be compressible if the density changes along a streamline . This means that – unlike incompressible flow – changes in density are considered. In general, this is the case where the Mach number in part or all of the flow exceeds 0.3. The Mach 0.3 value is rather arbitrary, but it

8245-512: The programme. By November 1984, conceptual design had passed its critical design review, with the detailed design finalised in 1986. The two prototypes were constructed in conjunction with KnAAPO in 1986–1987. The first Su-27 K prototype, piloted by Viktor Pugachyov , made its maiden flight on 17 August 1987 at the NITKA facility; the second followed on 22 December. Flight tests continued at NITKA, where Su-27Ks and MiG-29Ks demonstrated and validated

8342-503: The proposed MiG-23Ks and Su-27Ks. Sufficient funding was not secured, and the Navy looked at the possibility of a fifth, and larger, Project 1143 carrier, modified to allow for Yak-141 , MiG-29K and Su-27K operations. To prepare for the operations of the Su-27K and the rival MiG-29K on board the new carrier, work proceeded on the development of the steam catapult , arresting gear , optical and radio landing systems. The pilots were trained at

8439-472: The refinements enlarge the wing area by 10–12%. The wings and stabilators are modified for folding to maximise the number of aircraft the carrier can accommodate and to allow ease of movement on deck. The aircraft is outfitted with more powerful turbofan engines to increase thrust-to-weight ratio , as well as an in-flight refuelling probe. The Su-33 sports canards that shorten the take-off distance and improve manoeuvrability, but have required reshaping of

8536-450: The speed of sound. The Mach number is used to evaluate whether the incompressibility can be assumed, otherwise the effects of compressibility must be included. Subsonic (or low-speed) aerodynamics describes fluid motion in flows which are much lower than the speed of sound everywhere in the flow. There are several branches of subsonic flow but one special case arises when the flow is inviscid , incompressible and irrotational . This case

8633-459: The speed of sound. The differences in airflow under such conditions lead to problems in aircraft control, increased drag due to shock waves , and the threat of structural failure due to aeroelastic flutter . The ratio of the flow speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of the supersonic flow. Macquorn Rankine and Pierre Henri Hugoniot independently developed

8730-652: The subsystems of the "J-15B". In November 2022, a production J-15 powered by the Shenyang WS-10 , possibly the WS-10B, appeared in Chinese media. It was the last indigenous Chinese combat aircraft to replace the AL-31; possibly due to navalisation . According to Chinese observers, compared to the AL-31 the WS-10 had superior safety, reliability, and service life, aspects which are magnified by

8827-446: The theory for flow properties before and after a shock wave , while Jakob Ackeret led the initial work of calculating the lift and drag of supersonic airfoils. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds between the critical Mach number and Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly. This rapid increase in drag led aerodynamicists and aviators to disagree on whether supersonic flight

8924-485: Was achievable until the sound barrier was broken in 1947 using the Bell X-1 aircraft. By the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists' understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an ever-evolving line of high-performance aircraft. Computational fluid dynamics began as an effort to solve for flow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to

9021-607: Was decided to develop a bigger and more potent carrier capable of operating STOL aircraft. During the assessment period, a number of aircraft carriers were studied; the Project 1160 carrier would have been able to operate the MiG-23s and Su-24s , but was abandoned due to budget constraints. Design efforts were then concentrated on the Project 1153 carrier, which would have accommodated the Su-25s and

9118-431: Was identified as a possible export customer. Russia's state weapons exporter, Rosoboronexport , was previously negotiating an order of 50 aircraft totalling US$ 2.5 billion. China would have initially acquired two aircraft worth $ 100 million for testing and then have further options to acquire an additional 12–48 aircraft. The fighters were intended to be used with the fledgling Chinese aircraft carrier programme, with

9215-466: Was made as late as March 2009 — but negotiations collapsed in 2006 after it was discovered that China had developed a modified version of the Sukhoi Su-27 SK, designated the Shenyang J-11B , in violation of intellectual property agreements. However, according to Chinese sources, the reason China withdrew from talks was that Russia wanted large payments to re-open Su-33 production lines and insisted on

9312-477: Was modified to a ski-jump profile. Conceptual designs of the Su-27K commenced in 1978. On 18 April 1984, the Soviet government instructed Sukhoi to develop an air defence fighter; Mikoyan was ordered to build a lighter multirole fighter. Full-scale design of the Su-27K soon started as the "T-10K" under the guidance of Konstantin Marbyshev. Nikolai Sadovnikov was appointed the design bureau 's Chief Test Pilot for

9409-456: Was planned to be a trainer, but with the potential to fill other roles. Notable improvements over the Su-33 included a revised forward fuselage and leading edge slats, bigger wings and stabilators . In 2010, Sukhoi developed an upgraded version of the Su-33; flight trials began in October 2010. This modernized Su-33 was to compete with a potential Chinese indigenous version of the original Su-33,

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