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64-493: The development of the 12.7 mm ShVAK was in response to a Soviet government decree passed on 9 February 1931, directing domestic manufacturers to produce an aircraft machine gun for the 12.7×108mm cartridge that had been introduced a couple of years prior for the DK machine gun . Tula designer S.V. Vladimirov answered the call by producing basically an enlarged version of the ShKAS , with

128-602: A 1246 mm long barrel and a total length of 1726 mm. The first prototype was ready for trials on May 28, 1932. The testing process was fairly drawn out, but the 12.7 mm ShVAK was nominally adopted into service in 1934. Series production officially started in 1935 at the INZ-2 factory in Kovrov , but production soon fell well behind schedule because the ShVAK receiver was fairly complex to manufacture. According to Soviet records, out of

192-456: A Nationalist bombing raid on Madrid. Soviet pilots claimed four air victories and two German Heinkel He 51 pilots were killed. But the Soviets suffered losses too; the group commander collided with an enemy aircraft and another I-16 pilot crash landed. The Polikarpovs immediately began dominating the enemy Heinkel He 51 and Arado Ar 68 biplanes and remained unchallenged until the introduction of

256-449: A cable and the required effort, coupled with sensitive controls, made precision aiming difficult. The rear weight bias made the I-16 easy to handle on unprepared airfields because the aircraft was rather unlikely to flip over the nose even if the front wheels dug in. The I-16 was a difficult fighter to fly. The pilots had poor visibility, the canopy tended to become fouled with engine oil, and

320-499: A fully enclosed cockpit, and was optimized for speed with a short stubby fuselage, and a Wright R-1820 radial engine in a NACA cowling . The aircraft is small, light and simple to build. Full-scale work on the TsKB-12 prototype began in June 1933, and the aircraft was accepted into production on 22 November 1933, a month before it took to the air. The TsKB-12 was of mixed construction, using

384-493: A more powerful engine. The main versions of the I-16 had a maximum speed of 450–470 km/h (279–291 mph), while the Bf 109E had a maximum speed of 560–570 km/h (347–353 mph), the more streamlined Bf 109F Friedrich could hit 615–630 km/h (372-390plus mph). So German pilots held the initiative and could decide if they wanted to chase their opponents, could attack them from above and behind and then gain altitude for

448-399: A new attack. Meanwhile, Polikarpovs could only defend each other by forming a defensive circle or via horizontal maneuverability. Moreover, in terms of armament, Messerschmitts had a slight edge on the I-16. The Emil carried two wing-mounted 20mm MG FF cannons and two synchronized 7.92 mm MG-17s with a weight of a one-second salvo of 2.37 kg, while the most common version of

512-489: A third ShKAS in the bottom of the fuselage. The four-gun Type 10 was nicknamed "Super Mosca" or simply "Super". The total number of I-16s delivered to Spain from 1936 to 1938 amounted to 276. When the war ended on 1 April 1939, 187 Ratas had been lost in Spain: 112 lost in combat, one shot down by anti-aircraft fire, eleven destroyed on the ground, one force-landed and 62 lost in accidents. Between October 1937 and September 1939

576-429: A wooden monocoque fuselage and wings employing a KhMA chrome-molybdenum steel alloy wing spar, dural ribs and D1 aluminum alloy skinning on the center and leading edges, with the remaining portions of the wings fabric-covered. Another modern feature were the ailerons which ran along almost the entire trailing edge of the wing and also operated as flaps (in the manner of more modern flaperons ) by drooping 15°. The cockpit

640-585: Is a Soviet single-engine single-seat fighter aircraft of revolutionary design; it was the world's first low-wing cantilever monoplane fighter with retractable landing gear to attain operational status and as such "introduced a new vogue in fighter design". The I-16 was introduced in the mid-1930s and formed the backbone of the Soviet Air Force at the beginning of World War II . The diminutive fighter, nicknamed " Ishak " or " Ishachok " (" donkey " or "burro") by Soviet pilots, figured prominently in

704-407: Is unfounded (perhaps extrapolated from Gee Bee experience). In fact, the I-16's stablemate, the biplane Polikarpov I-153 , exhibited much worse spin characteristics. Service trials of the new fighter, designated I-16 , began on 22 March 1934. The M-22 prototype reached 359 km/h (223 mph). The pioneering presence of a complex, triple-strut manually retracted main landing gear design

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768-525: The Chinese Air Force where on 20 May 1940, they effectively shot down a C5M scout-attack plane and three G3M bombers during the Battle of Chongqing . Types 18, 24, 27, 28, and 29 could be fitted to carry RS-82 unguided rockets. The first successful use of air-to-air missiles in air combat was on August 20, 1939. A Ki-27 was hit by an RS-82 rocket launched from a distance of about a kilometer. The shot

832-516: The Messerschmitt Bf 109 . The arrival of the newest Bf 109Bs and the overwhelming numerical superiority of Nationalist fighters were the primary cause of the heavy I-15 and I-16 combat losses suffered throughout 1937. A number of aviation publications called the new Soviet fighter a "Boeing" due to the incorrect assumption that it was based on the Boeing P-26 's design. The Nationalists nicknamed

896-660: The Petlyakov Pe-3 night fighter and on Soviet-modified Hawker Hurricane aircraft. It was also installed on the wings of the Tupolev Tu-2 bomber and some ground attack versions of the Petlyakov Pe-2 bomber also had it installed in a fixed mounting. Some early versions of the Ilyushin Il-2 ground attack aircraft also carried it, but superseded in that aircraft by the 23 mm Volkov-Yartsev VYa-23 . The flexible-mount ShVAK

960-881: The Second Sino-Japanese War , the Battle of Khalkhin Gol , Winter War and the Spanish Civil War  – where it was called the Rata (" rat ") by the Nationalists or Mosca (" fly ") by the Republicans. The Finns called the aircraft Siipiorava "( flying squirrel )". While working on the Polikarpov I-15 biplane, Nikolai Nikolaevich Polikarpov began designing an advanced monoplane fighter. It featured cutting-edge innovations such as retractable landing gear and

1024-500: The ShKAS machine guns had a tendency to jam. This was the result of the guns being installed in the wings upside-down to facilitate the fit. The problem was addressed in later modifications. Evaluations from pilots confirmed the experience with prototypes. Controls were light and very sensitive, abrupt maneuvers resulted in spins, and spin behavior was excellent. An aileron roll could be performed in under 1.5 seconds (roll rate over 240 degrees/second). The machine guns were fired via

1088-610: The Soviet Union was being negotiated. As the license was not yet approved, Polikarpov was asked to settle for the less powerful M-22 (Soviet-built version of the Gnome-Rhone Jupiter 9ASB, which itself was a licensed version of the Bristol Jupiter VI) with 358 kW (480 hp). This was deemed acceptable because the projected top speed still exceeded 300 km/h (185 mph). The M-22-powered TsKB-12 first took to

1152-690: The Stammkennzeichen codes DM+HC and DM+HD) and flown from the Erprobungstelle Rechlin central Luftwaffe test facility by Kampfgeschwader 200 (KG 200). The Luftwaffe was not the only air force able to test its fighters against the I-16; the Japanese captured a few I-16s as well, and the Romanian Air Force also got one when a Soviet pilot defected. The Finnish Air Force (FAF) captured some I-16s (along with several other Soviet types). During

1216-605: The Winter War and the Continuation War , the Finns captured six I-16s and one I-16UTI. Two of the captured I-16s and I-16UTIs were put back into flying condition and flight tested. There is considerable disagreement in literature on features of particular I-16 variants. This list is based on the following references. Commencing in 1993, New Zealand pilot and entrepreneur Sir Tim Wallis ' Alpine Fighter Collection organised

1280-618: The Zveno parasite aircraft experiments using the Tupolev TB-3 as a mothership. These I-16s carried two 250 kg bombs for dive bombing. This was more than double the bomb load an I-16 could take off with under its own power. Once the bombs were dropped, they could perform as normal I-16s, and could re-attach to the TB-3 for the return journey. The Luftwaffe was known to have captured some I-16 and UTI-4 two-seat trainers (two of which were marked with

1344-604: The battles of Khalkhin Gol , of which 88 were destroyed in aerial combat, primarily against the all-metal Nakajima Ki-27 Japanese fighters. During test trials in Russia of a captured Ki-27, the aircraft proved superior to the Soviet I-152 (I-15bis), I-153 , and the I-16 in aerial combat, as well as having a faster take-off and lower landing speed, requiring shorter airstrips than the I-16, which needed 270 meters to stop and 380 meters for take-off. Further attempts were made to upgrade

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1408-556: The 12.7 mm version ceased. Similarly to its predecessors, the 20 mm ShVAK was a gas-operated gun, belt-fed by disintegrating link ammunition. Depending on the intended mount, the ShVAKs were marked with "MP" for the tank version (total gun length 2122 mm; weight 44.5 kg), "KP" for the wing-mounted version (1679 mm total length; 40 kg), "TP" for flexible mounts (1726  mm length; 42 kg), and "SP" for synchronized installations. The "bird-cage" feed system in

1472-453: The 20 mm ShVAK was an improved version of the ShKAS. It could hold 11 rounds and had an even smoother operation. As with the ShKAS, the purpose of the feed cage was to gradually delink the rounds, avoiding any belt lurch. The Berthier -type gas regulator had four holes (of 3.5, 4, 4.5, and 6 mm) allowing for different rates of fire to be selected. The most significant design difference from

1536-429: The 410 12.7 mm ShVAKs planned for aircraft in 1935, only 86 were completed; for the tank version, 40 had been planned but only 6 were delivered that same year. A 1952 Western intelligence report indicates that only "a few" ShVAKs were produced in the 12.7 mm caliber. A further problem complicating the adoption of the gun was that the 12.7 mm ShVAK ended up not using the 12.7×108mm rimless cartridge used by

1600-649: The Air Force, who now wanted the experimental Nazarov M-58 engine and 470 km/h (290 mph). Subsequently, the M-22-powered version entered production at Factory 21 in Nizhny Novgorod and Factory 39 in Moscow . Because it was the fourth aircraft produced by these factories, it received the designation I-16 Type 4 . Aircraft fitted with these new engines required a slightly changed airframe, including armor plating for

1664-509: The Chinese pilots meant many were lost to crashes. In Chinese service the I-16 became known as the "Lastochka" or "Swallow". In the early years of the war the I-16 was a capable fighter, however from 1939 onwards its performance was deemed to be lacking in comparison to newer fighters. A number Chinese aces flew the I-16; among them Lo Ying-Teh who in 1938 shot down Japanese unit leader Lt Ryohei Ushioda's A5M2 in his I-16 Type 5. .Another ace to fly

1728-582: The DK machine gun, but rather—because it was an adaptation of the ShKAS mechanism—it required its own rimmed 12.7 mm cases. Production of the rimmed 12.7 mm ammunition ceased in 1939, when it was decided that the Berezin UB was preferable because it could share ammunition with the DShK. The 20 mm ShVAK was designed sometime between 1935 and 1936 and series production began in 1936. A few months later, production of

1792-614: The I-16 Type 1 for evaluation purposes did not find the aircraft to have many redeeming characteristics. Regardless of pilot opinion, much attention was focused on the Cyclone-powered aircraft and the M-25 (the license-built Cyclone). The third prototype with a Cyclone engine incorporated a series of aerodynamic improvements and was delivered for government trials on 7 September 1934. The top speed of 437 km/h (270 mph) no longer satisfied

1856-450: The I-16 was Liu Chi-Sheng who achieved 3 of his 10 kills while flying the I-16 Type 5, along with another shared kill. Another 250 I-16 Type 10s were supplied to China. This model added a second set of 7.62 mm (0.30 in) ShKAS machine guns, armor behind the pilot, and had a slightly upgraded 560 kW (750 hp) M-25 engine. In 1939, of the 500 I-16s deployed to the fighting at Nomonhan , approximately 112 were lost during

1920-610: The I-16—armed with just two synchronized and two wing-mounted 7.62 ShKAS—could deliver 1.43 kg of bullets each second. Finally, the ammunition storage on a Messerschmitt exceeded that of the I-16, carrying 1,000 rounds for each machine gun (plus sixty drum -housed rounds for each cannon), while the Polikarpov carried just 450 rounds for each ShKAS gun. Around half of all produced I-16s were still in service in 1943, when they were finally replaced. Specially modified I-16s were used in

1984-611: The Luftwaffe's Luftflotte 2 (in support of Wehrmacht Army Group Centre) was directed against the Soviet Western Special Military District, that deployed 361 (424 according to other sources) I-16s. During the early phase of the campaign the I-16 bases were the main targets for the German aircraft and after 48 hours of combat, of the 1,635 Polikarpov monoplanes in service on 21 June 1941, only 937 were left. By 30 June

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2048-470: The Messerschmitt Bf 109E, or Emil , on equal terms in turns. Skilled Soviet pilots took advantage of the Polikarpov's superior horizontal maneuverability and liked it enough to resist the switch to more modern fighters. The German aircraft, however, outclassed its Soviet opponent in service ceiling, rate of climb, acceleration and, crucially, in horizontal and diving speed, due to better aerodynamics and

2112-519: The Nationalists, delivered in 1941 and did not include upgraded cannons. The cannons adversely affected performance, with 360° turn time increasing from fifteen seconds in the Type 5 to eighteen seconds. The Type 24 replaced the skid with a tailwheel and featured the much more powerful 670 kW (900 hp) Shvetsov M-63 engine. The Type 29 replaced two of the ShKAS guns with a single 12.7 mm (.50 in) UBS . Ten Type 17 fighters were supplied to

2176-481: The ShKAS was that the gas cylinder was moved under the barrel in the ShVAK, giving it a more compact assembly. The end of the barrel was threaded, and this thread was used to screw on a blast-reduction tube of a length that depended on the installation requirements: One of the outstanding features of this weapon is the method of solving blast tube difficulties, a troublesome problem in all installations of aircraft cannon in fighter aircraft. The Soviets' simple solution

2240-455: The Type 5 could not perform the high-G maneuvers of other fighters, it possessed superior speed and climb rates, and had extremely responsive aileron control, which gave it a very good roll rate, which led to precision maneuvers in loops and split-Ss . A total of 10,292 single-seat aircraft were produced between 1935 and 1942; the number of two-seat trainer variants produced varies between 843 and 3,189. Initial service experience revealed that

2304-667: The USSR delivered 885 aircraft (rising to 1,250 by 1941), including 216 Polikarpov I-16s, predominately Type 5s and Type 10s . At first the Soviet pilots would have to fly the aircraft over 1,500 miles across China to get them to their destination of Lanzhou , however this was a risky journey and so future batches of aircraft would be disassembled and transported to Hami (closer to Lanzhou), before final assembly and delivery to Lanzhou. The first I-16s were delivered in November 1937, however rushed training of

2368-633: The VVS for military trials. The cancelled Yatsenko I-28 was also planned to use the 12.7 mm ShVAK in a synchronized pair, but the few prototypes which flew in the summer of 1939 did so without armament because a synchronizer for their engine had not been developed. The 20 mm ShVAK was installed in the wings, in the nose, or in a synchronized mounting in the following fighters: Polikarpov I-153 P and I-16 , Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 , Yakovlev Yak-1 , Yak-3 , Yak-7 , and Yak-9 , LaGG-3 , Lavochkin La-5 and La-7 ,

2432-452: The addition of oil radiators, and dust adversely affected the life of the engines. Although some aircraft accumulated up to 400 hours of flying time, the average life of an I-16 was 87 days, of which one sixth was spent on maintenance. The biggest complaint in service was the light armament of only two 7.62 mm (0.30 in) machine guns . This was urgently addressed with the Type 6 which added

2496-591: The air on 30 December 1933 with the famous Soviet test pilot Valery Chkalov at the controls. The second TsKB-12, with a Cyclone engine and three-bladed propeller, flew in January of the following year. Initial government trials in February 1934 revealed very good maneuverability, but the aircraft did not tolerate abrupt control inputs. Thus the TsKB-12 was deemed dangerous to fly and all aerobatics were forbidden. The M-22 version

2560-593: The ammunition in the barrel. The problem was first addressed in 1936 by changing the fuse from the MG-3 model to the MG-201 model, but the problem was not eliminated until the introduction of the K-6 fuse in 1938, which reliably prevented projectiles from arming until they were 30 to 50 cm out of the barrel. 12.7%C3%97108mm The 12.7×108mm cartridge is a 12.7 mm heavy machine gun and anti-materiel rifle cartridge used by

2624-491: The blast and projectile past portions of the plane that would otherwise have been injured. The 1952 Western intelligence report said of the 20 mm ShVAK: "in relation to its power, the gun is very light and extremely compact" and that it "has a range comparable to our M3 cannon , although their short barrel version is 16 pounds lighter". It was however considered "relatively difficult to produce" in American factories, because it

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2688-763: The casing of the 12.7 × 108 mm is slightly longer, and its larger case capacity allows it to hold slightly more of a different type of powder. The 12.7 × 108 mm can be used to engage a wide variety of targets on the battlefield, and will destroy unarmored vehicles, penetrate lightly armored vehicles and damage external ancillary equipment (i.e.: searchlights, radar, transmitters, vision blocks, engine compartment covers) on heavily armored vehicles such as tanks. It will also ignite gasoline and—since 2019—diesel fuel (experimental "Avers" AP/I round). The 12.7 × 108 mm has 22.72 ml (350 grains ) H 2 O cartridge case capacity. [REDACTED] 12.7 × 108 mm maximum cartridge dimensions. All sizes in millimeters (mm). Americans define

2752-482: The firepower of the aircraft using 20 mm (0.79 in) ShVAK cannons , making the I-16 one of the most heavily armed fighters of the period, able to fire 28 rounds of ammunition in three seconds. Pilots loved the results, but the cannons were in short supply, and only a small number of the I-16 Type 12 , 17 , 27, and 28 were built. The Chung 28 is an unlicensed I-16 built from the spare parts of I-16s provided to

2816-459: The former Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact countries, including Russia, China, Iran, North Korea, and many others. It was invented in 1934 to create a cartridge like the German 13.2mm TuF anti-tank rifle round and the American .50 Browning Machine Gun round (12.7×99mm NATO). It is used in the same roles as the NATO .50 BMG ( 12.7×99mm NATO) cartridge. The two differ in bullet shape and weight, and

2880-510: The landing flaps caused a dramatic change in the aircraft's attitude. Accurate gunfire was difficult. The pilots nicknamed the aircraft Ishak (Russian: Ишак , Donkey / Hinny ) because it was similar to the Russian pronunciation of "I-16" ("ee-shestnadtset"). When Operation Barbarossa erupted on 22 June 1941, 1,635 of 4,226 VVS aircraft were I-16s of all variants, fielded by 57 fighter regiments in frontier areas. The main assault delivered by

2944-534: The leadership of Pavel Sukhoi and Aleksandr Putylov , eventually convinced NII VVS that what was being proposed was not only feasible, but would enhance the aircraft's performance. The TsKB-12 was designed for the Wright Cyclone SR-1820-F-3 9-cylinder radial engine (rated at 529 kW/710 hp); a license to build this engine under the supervision of the OKB-19 Shvetsov design bureau in

3008-615: The mainwheel into the lower fuselage, performed by the middle-location strut's geometric arrangement and pivot locations. Most of the test flights were performed with the gear extended. On 14 April 1934, the Cyclone prototype was damaged when one of the landing gear legs collapsed while it was taxiing. On 1 May 1934, the M-22 prototype participated in the flyover of Red Square . Approximately thirty I-16 Type 1 aircraft were delivered, but were not assigned to any VVS fighter squadron. Most pilots who flew

3072-789: The moving portion was prone to slamming shut during hard maneuvers, which caused many pilots to fix it in the open position. The front section of the fuselage, with the engine, was too close to the centre of gravity , and the pilot's cockpit too far to the rear. The Polikarpov had insufficient longitudinal stability and it was impossible to fly the aircraft "hands off". At the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Republican forces pleaded for fighter aircraft. After receiving payment in gold, Joseph Stalin dispatched around 475 I-16 Type 5s and Type 6s. The first I-16s appeared in Spanish skies in November 1936. The Polikarpov monoplanes had their baptism of fire on 13 November 1936, when twelve I-16s intercepted

3136-468: The number of I-16s in western front line units had dropped to 873, including 99 that required repairs. To stem the Luftwaffe aerial assault several I-16 pilots adopted the taran tactic and sacrificed their lives, ramming German aircraft. Its main opponent in the sky in 1941 was the German Messerschmitt Bf 109 . The I-16 was slightly more maneuverable than the early Bf 109s and could fight

3200-416: The pilot and changes to the landing gear doors (particularly, the hinged lower mainwheel door) to allow for complete closure. The M-25 fitted I-16, the I-16 Type 5, featured a new engine cowling which was slightly smaller in diameter and featured nine forward-facing, radially-set shuttered openings to control cooling airflow, a redesigned exhaust with eight individual outlet stubs, and other changes. The M-25

3264-589: The restoration of six I-16s and three I-153s, found in Russia, to an airworthy condition by the Soviet Aeronautical Research Institute (Sibnia) in Novosibirsk. The flight of the first restored aircraft (I-16 9 ) took place in October 1995. Once restored the aircraft were transported by rail to Vladivostok and from there shipped via Hong Kong to New Zealand. This project was completed in 1999 when

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3328-459: The shoulder angle at alpha/2 ≈ 18.16 degrees. According to guidelines the 12.7 × 108 mm case can handle up to 360 MPa (52,213 psi) piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum CIP pressure to certify for sale to consumers. Note that some WW2 bullets share designations with ones for 14.5×114mm . Polikarpov I-16 The Polikarpov I-16 ( Russian : Поликарпов И-16 )

3392-448: The stubby fighter Rata (Rat), while the Republicans affectionately called it Mosca (Fly). Combat experience showed that the I-16 had deficiencies; several aircraft were lost after structural failure of the wings, which was quickly remedied by reinforced structures. Heavy machine gun bullets could sometimes penetrate the armored backrest, and fuel tanks occasionally caught fire in spite of being protected. The hot Spanish summers required

3456-464: The war, the ShVAK was supplanted by the Berezin B-20 , which offered similar performance but weighed significantly less. Three Polikarpov I-16 aircraft, all produced in January 1939, were armed with the propeller-synchronized version of the 12.7 mm ShVAK; this short series was given the I-16 Type 16 designation. The three fighter planes successfully passed the factory trials and were delivered to

3520-459: The wings, mounted on the outboard side of the main gear and 900 rounds of ammunition. These features were proposed at first by Andrei Tupolev ; however, the NII VVS (Air Force Scientific Test Institute) was more concerned about the stresses a typical combat aircraft was subjected to in combat, and initially considered the risk too great. However, TsAGI , with the help of the 3rd Design Brigade under

3584-436: Was constructed from relatively soft parts (not heat-treated) that were then filed down. This choice of materials was assumed to be motivated by the desire to allow parts to "deform and bend well in advance of fracture" enabling a safer operation at a high rate of fire, but having the tradeoff of shorter overall lifespan of the gun. Soviet archives indicate the 20-mm ShVAK was produced in large numbers during World War II: After

3648-417: Was covered by a 40-centimetre-wide (16 in) canopy which featured an Aldis-type tubular gun sight which could slide back and forth on runners fitted with rubber bungee cords. A 225 L (59.4 US gal) fuel tank was fitted directly in front of the cockpit. The main landing gear is fully retractable by a hand crank. The armament consisted of a pair of 7.62×54mmR (0.30 in) ShKAS machine guns in

3712-437: Was decided to risk the M-22 prototype for this purpose. On 1 and 2 March 1934, Chkalov performed 75 spins and discovered that the aircraft had very benign stall behavior (dipping a wing and recovering without input from the pilot when airspeed increased) and intentional spins could be easily terminated by placing the controls in the neutral position. The stories of vicious spin behavior of the I-16 perpetuated in modern literature

3776-455: Was fired by Captain N. Zvonarev. A 1939 government study found the I-16 had exhausted its performance potential. The addition of armor, radio, battery, and flaps during the aircraft's evolution exacerbated the rear weight distribution problems to the point where the aircraft required considerable forward pressure on the stick to maintain level flight and at the same time developed a tendency to enter uncontrolled dives. Extension and retraction of

3840-487: Was preferred due to the vibration of the Cyclone-powered aircraft. Pilots commented early on about the difficulty of climbing into the cockpit, a trait that persisted through the I-16's service life. Before continuing test flights the designers had to answer the question of spin behavior. Wind tunnel testing suggested that the TsKB-12, with its short tail, would enter an unrecoverable spin , but real-life trials were necessary to confirm this. Since Cyclone engines were rare, it

3904-421: Was prone to jamming and required considerable strength from the pilot, who directly operated the rearmost strut's upper end, moved with a manually turned jackscrew running spanwise within the wing structure, to "slide" outwards and inwards on each side to respectively get the main gear retracted and extended, with the main strut (the forward-most of the trio) needing to shorten its length during its retraction to fit

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3968-515: Was rated at 474 kW (635 hp) at sea level and 522 kW (700 hp) at 2,300 m (7,546 ft). Due to the poor quality of the canopy glazing, the I-16 Type 5 pilots typically left the canopy open or removed the rear portion completely. By the time the Type 5 arrived, it was the world's lightest production fighter (1,460 kg/3,219 lb), as well as the world's fastest, able to reach speeds of 454 km/h (282 mph) at altitude and 395 km/h (245 mph) at sea level. While

4032-412: Was to thread the end of their standard barrel and then screw on for whatever length was needed a heavy piece of tubing, the bore diameter of which was slightly greater than that of the rotating band of the projectile. This arrangement allowed the blast and gas to leak around the projectile before it cleared the tube, not only reducing the blast effect of the weapon but also by its added length safely leading

4096-578: Was used in the Petlyakov Pe-8 and Yermolayev Yer-2 bombers. The tank version was installed on the T-38 and T-60 light tanks. ShVAK ammunition consisted of a mix of fragmentation-incendiary and armor-piercing -incendiary rounds. Mild steel projectile case with hardened steel core, surrounded by 2.5 g incendiary, screwed on aluminum, or bakelite ballistic cap There were problems with ammunition development as well. There were cases of premature cook-off of

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