The 1970s (pronounced "nineteen-seventies"; commonly shortened to the " Seventies " or the " ' 70s ") was the decade that began on January 1, 1970, and ended on December 31, 1979.
152-414: In the 21st century, historians have increasingly portrayed the 1970s as a "pivot of change" in world history, focusing especially on the economic upheavals that followed the end of the postwar economic boom . On a global scale, it was characterized by frequent coups, domestic conflicts and civil wars, and various political upheavals and armed conflicts which arose from or were related to decolonization , and
304-511: A collective leadership led by Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin , the economy was revitalised. The economy continued to grow apace during the late 1960s, during the Eighth Five-Year Plan . However, economic growth began to falter during the late 1970s, beginning the Era of Stagnation . Sweden emerged almost unharmed from World War II, and experienced tremendous economic growth until
456-516: A totalitarian regime ". Javier Tusell pointed out that "those who in the past were in bed with totalitarianism now felt entitled to prohibit the totalitarianism of others". The reforms of the Fundamental Laws governing royal succession and the composition of the Cortes, designed by Fraga, also failed. Fraga had intended to make the Cortes bicameral , with one chamber elected by universal suffrage and
608-423: A boom period (5% growth per year on average) dubbed by Jean Fourastié Trente Glorieuses – the title of a book published in 1979. The economic growth occurred mainly due to productivity gains and to an increase in the number of working hours. Indeed, the working population grew very slowly, the " baby boom " being offset by the extension of the time dedicated to study. Productivity gains came from catching up with
760-513: A brief but very rapid economic recovery in the aftermath of World War II. The comparatively light damage sustained by Belgium's heavy industry during the German occupation and the Europe-wide need for the country's traditional exports (steel and coal, textiles, and railway infrastructure) meant that Belgium became the first European country to regain its pre-war level of output in 1947. Economic growth in
912-515: A cause of major concern as habitat destruction, and Stephen Jay Gould 's theory of punctuated equilibrium revolutionized evolutionary thought. As the 1960s ended, the United States had made two successful crewed lunar landings . Many Americans lost interest afterward, feeling that since the country had accomplished President John F. Kennedy 's goal of landing on the Moon by the end of the 1960s, there
1064-463: A clear political program based on two points: This program was clear and unequivocal, but its realization tested the political capacity of Suárez. He had to convince both the opposition to participate in his plan and the army to allow the process to run uninterrupted, and at the same time needed to bring the situation in the Basque Country under control. Despite these challenges, Suárez's project
1216-517: A constitution, in the middle of 1977. In 1978, the Moncloa Pact was passed: an agreement amongst politicians, political parties, and trade unions to plan how to operate the economy, during the transition. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 went on to be approved in a referendum, on 6 December 1978. Prime Minister Adolfo Suárez's party, the UCD, received a plurality , but not an absolute majority , in both
1368-465: A democratic parliament in the 1977 general election, which had the imprimatur to write a new constitution that was then approved by referendum in December 1978. The following years saw the beginning of the development of the rule of law and establishment of regional government , amidst ongoing terrorism, an attempted coup d'état and global economic problems. The Transition is said to have concluded after
1520-452: A democratic, constitutional and parliamentary monarchy. For the transition to succeed, the army needed to refrain from intervening in the political process on behalf of Francoist elements within the existing government. As Raymond Carr explains, In containing the right and keeping the army loyal to the government the support of the King, as commander-in-chief of the army, was critical, enabling
1672-646: A dream of Spanish intellectuals since the end of the 19th century. Previous attempts at democratization included the First Spanish Republic and the Second Spanish Republic . General Francisco Franco came to power in 1939, following the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and ruled as a dictator until his death in 1975. In 1969, he designated Prince Juan Carlos , grandson of Spain's most recent king, Alfonso XIII , as his official successor. For
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#17328448897771824-623: A fundamental objection to the government's policy of conscription is that it conscripts human life only, and that it does not attempt to conscript wealth... The Economist , a British publication, opposed capital levies, but supported "direct taxation heavy enough to amount to rationing of citizens' incomes"; similarly, the American economist Oliver Mitchell Wentworth Sprague , in the Economic Journal , argued that that "conscription of men should logically and equitably be accompanied by something in
1976-428: A further clear agenda. Many UCD members were fairly conservative and did not want further change. For example, a bill to legalize divorce caused much dissension inside the UCD, in spite of being supported by the majority of the populace. The UCD coalition fell apart. The clashes among the several factions, inside the party, eroded Suárez's authority and his role as leader. The tension exploded in 1981: Suárez resigned as
2128-554: A global zeitgeist revealed the interdependence of economies since World War II, in a world increasingly polarized between the United States and the Soviet Union. Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include: The 1970s were perhaps the worst decade of most industrialized countries' economic performance since the Great Depression . Although there was no severe economic depression as witnessed in
2280-646: A growing inability to increase agricultural output caused growing concern to the governments of the COMECON block, and a growing dependence on food imported from democratic nations. On the other hand, export-driven economic development in Asia, especially by the Four Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan), resulted in rapid economic transformation and industrialization. Their abundance of cheap labor , combined with educational and other policy reforms, set
2432-502: A job for life, a house, and a family. In the West, there emerged a near-complete consensus against strong ideology and a belief that technocratic and scientific solutions could be found to most of humanity's problems, a view advanced by US President John F. Kennedy in 1962. This optimism was symbolized through such events as the 1964 New York World's Fair , and Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society programs, which aimed at eliminating poverty in
2584-602: A large part of the army to oppose Suárez, opposition that further intensified when the PCE was legalized. Meanwhile, Gutiérrez Mellado promoted officials who supported political reform and removed those commanders of the security forces (the Policía Armada and the Guardia Civil ) who seemed to support preserving the Francoist regime. Suárez wanted to demonstrate to the army that
2736-422: A move towards smaller, fuel-efficient vehicles. Attempts were made to produce electric cars, but they were largely unsuccessful. In the United States, imported cars became a significant factor for the first time, and several domestic-built subcompact models entered the market. American-made cars such as the "quirky" AMC Gremlin , the jelly bean shaped AMC Pacer , and Pontiac Firebird 's powerful Trans Am "sum up"
2888-520: A number of countries across the world during the 1970s, many being the first women to hold such positions. Non-monarch women heads of state and heads of government in this period included Isabel Perón as the first woman President in Argentina and the first woman non-monarch head of state in the Western hemisphere in 1974 until being deposed in 1976, Elisabeth Domitien becomes the first woman Prime Minister of
3040-699: A partnership with the French automaker Renault in 1979. European car design underwent major changes during the 1970s due to the need for performance with high fuel efficiency —designs such as the Volkswagen Golf and Passat, BMW 3, 5, and 7 series, and Mercedes-Benz S-Class appeared at the latter half of the decade. Ford Europe, specifically Ford Germany, also eclipsed the profits of its American parent company. The designs of Giorgetto Giugiaro became dominant, along with those of Marcello Gandini in Italy. The 1970s also saw
3192-404: A renewed vigor with symbolic modeling of semantic knowledge while the final devastation of the long-standing tradition of behaviorism came about through the severe criticism of B. F. Skinner 's work in 1971 by the cognitive scientist Noam Chomsky . Concorde makes the world's first commercial passenger-carrying supersonic flight. The birth of modern computing was in the 1970s, which saw
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#17328448897773344-519: A single market) came into effect. In the US, the average annual inflation rate from 1900 to 1970 was approximately 2.5%. From 1970 to 1979, however, the average rate was 7.06%, and topped out at 13.29% in December 1979. This period is also known for " stagflation ", a phenomenon in which inflation and unemployment steadily increased. It led to double-digit interest rates that rose to unprecedented levels (above 12% per year). The prime rate hit 21.5 in December 1980,
3496-480: Is still known as the InterCity 125 . Amtrak was formed in the United States in 1971, assuming responsibility for inter-city passenger operations throughout the country. In 1976, Conrail was formed to take over the assets of six bankrupt freight railroads in the northeastern US. The 1970s was an era of fuel price increases, rising insurance rates, safety concerns, and emissions controls. The 1973 oil crisis caused
3648-456: The 1979 election resulted in the victory of its Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher , the first female British Prime Minister. Industrialized countries experienced an economic recession due to an oil crisis caused by oil embargoes by the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries . The crisis saw the first instance of stagflation which began a political and economic trend of
3800-448: The G.I. Bill financed a well-educated work force. The middle class swelled, as did GDP and productivity. The US underwent its own golden age of economic growth. This growth was distributed fairly evenly across the economic classes, which some attribute to the strength of labor unions in this period—labor union membership peaked during the 1950s. Much of the growth came from the movement of low-income farm workers into better-paying jobs in
3952-709: The Iranian Revolution in 1979, which overthrew the Pahlavi dynasty and established an Islamic republic under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini . Africa saw further decolonization in the decade, with Angola and Mozambique gaining their independence in 1975 from the Portuguese Empire after the Carnation Revolution in Portugal. Furthermore, Spain withdrew its claim over Spanish Sahara in 1976, marking
4104-590: The Marshall Plan , and the use of Keynesian economics . Although this was before modern eastern countries growing their workforce I.e. before the outsourcing problem protectionists point to. In the United States, the Employment Act of 1946 set the goals of achieving full employment, full production, and stable prices. It also created the Council of Economic Advisers to provide objective economic analysis and advice on
4256-580: The Movimiento Nacional , he declared that the purpose of his government was the continuity of Francoism through a "democracy in the Spanish way" ( Spanish : democracia a la española ). He believed political changes should be limited: he would give the parliament, the Cortes Españolas, the task of "updating our laws and institutions the way Franco would have wanted". The reform programme adopted by
4408-522: The Non-Aligned Movement , import substitution , counterculture of the 1960s , opposition to the Vietnam War , the civil rights movement , the sexual revolution , the beginning of second-wave feminism , and a nuclear arms race . In the United States, the middle-class began a mass migration away from the cities and towards the suburbs; it was a period of prosperity in which most people could enjoy
4560-566: The Taiwan Miracle lasted into the late 1990s, for instance, while in France the period is referred to as Trente Glorieuses (Glorious 30 [years]) and is considered to extend for the 30-year period from 1945 to 1975. OECD members enjoyed real GDP growth averaging over 4% per year in the 1950s, and nearly 5% per year in the 1960s, compared with 3% in the 1970s and 2% in the 1980s. Skidelsky devotes ten pages of his 2009 book Keynes: The Return of
4712-545: The postwar economic boom or the Golden Age of Capitalism , was a broad period of worldwide economic expansion beginning with the aftermath of World War II and ending with the 1973–1975 recession . The United States, the Soviet Union and Western European and East Asian countries in particular experienced unusually high and sustained growth, together with full employment . Contrary to early predictions, this high growth also included many countries that had been devastated by
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4864-408: The 1930s, economic growth rates were considerably lower than previous decades. As a result, the 1970s adversely distinguished itself from the prosperous postwar period between 1945 and 1973. The oil shocks of 1973 and 1979 added to the existing ailments and conjured high inflation throughout much of the world for the rest of the decade. U.S. manufacturing industries began to decline as a result, with
5016-511: The 1940s, the price of oil was about $ 17, rising to just over $ 20 during the Korean War (1951–1953). During the Vietnam War (1950s–1970s) the price of oil slowly declined to under $ 20. During the Arab oil embargo of 1973 —the first oil shock—the price of oil rapidly rose to double in price. Among the causes can be mentioned the rapid normalization of political relations between former Axis powers and
5168-410: The 1960s. A 1957 speech by UK Prime Minister Harold Macmillan captures what the golden age felt like, even before the brightest years which were to come in the 1960s. Let us be frank about it: most of our people have never had it so good. Go round the country, go to the industrial towns, go to the farms and you will see a state of prosperity such as we have never had in my lifetime – nor indeed in
5320-442: The 1970s would result in a sluggish cynicism replacing the optimistic attitudes of the 1950s and 1960s and a distrust of government and technology. Faith in government was at an all-time low in the aftermath of Vietnam and Watergate, as exemplified by the low voter turnout in the 1976 United States presidential election. There was also the 1973–74 stock market crash . Great Britain also experienced considerable economic turmoil during
5472-464: The 1970s, with coupes being the most popular body style. Wood paneling and shag carpets dominated the interiors. Many automobiles began to lose their character and looked the same across brands and automakers, as well as featuring "luxury" enhancements such as vinyl roofs and opera windows . Only a few had "real personalities" such as the AMC Gremlin, which was America's first modern subcompact , and
5624-423: The 1970s, with the bellicose US–Soviet confrontations of the 1950s–60s giving way to the policy of détente , which promoted the idea that the world's problems could be resolved at the negotiating table. Détente was partially a reaction against the policies of the previous 25 years, which had brought the world dangerously close to nuclear war on several occasions, and because the US was in a weakened position following
5776-565: The 1980s. Pope Paul VI recognized the popularity of Catholic feminists, but ultimately held to tradition when it came to leaving bishops, priests, and deacons a male-only position. The opposition to the War in Vietnam that began in the 1960s grew exponentially during the early 1970s. One of the best-known anti-war demonstrations was the Kent State shootings . In 1970, university students were protesting
5928-453: The 1980s. The service sector grew rapidly and became the largest sector, generating a large foreign-trade surplus, chiefly from the earnings from tourism. The Italian economy experienced very variable growth. In the 1950s and early 1960s the Italian economy boomed , with record high growth-rates, including 6.4% in 1959, 5.8% in 1960, 6.8% in 1961, and 6.1% in 1962. This rapid and sustained growth
6080-594: The 19th century. As a result, ecological awareness rose substantially, which had a major effect on the economy. The 1970s witnessed an explosion in the understanding of solid-state physics, driven by the development of the integrated circuit , and the laser . Stephen Hawking developed his theories of black holes and the boundary-condition of the universe at this period with his theory called Hawking radiation . The biological sciences greatly advanced, with molecular biology, bacteriology, virology, and genetics achieving their modern forms in this decade. Biodiversity became
6232-515: The 28th Congress of the PSOE in May 1979, secretary-general Felipe González resigned, rather than ally with the strong revolutionary elements that seemed to dominate the party. A special congress was called that September, and realigned the party along more moderate lines, renouncing Marxism and allowing González to take charge once more. Throughout 1982, the PSOE confirmed its moderate orientation and brought in
1970s - Misplaced Pages Continue
6384-502: The AMC Pacer. "These two cars embody a sense of artful desperation that made them stand out from the crowd and epitomize at once the best and worst of the seventies." Automobiles in the U.S. reached the largest sizes they would ever attain, but by 1977, General Motors managed to downsize its full-size models to more manageable dimensions. Ford followed suit two years later, with Chrysler offering new small front-wheel-drive models, but
6536-530: The Central African Republic, Indira Gandhi continuing as Prime Minister of India until 1977 (and taking office again in 1980), Sirimavo Bandaranaike , Prime minister of Sri Lanka (Former Ceylon ) and first female head of government in the world, re-elected in 1970, Prime Minister Golda Meir of Israel and acting chairman Soong Ching-ling of the People's Republic of China continuing their leadership from
6688-532: The Civil War still haunted Spain. Francoists on the far right enjoyed considerable support within the Spanish Army , and people of the left distrusted a king who owed his position to Franco. The King's legitimacy rested on this appointment; his father, Don Juan, did not renounce his claim until 14 May 1977. Liberal opinion at the time held therefore, that the throne's legitimacy could only be saved by establishing
6840-896: The Constituent Cortes were carried out in June 1977. The elections held on 15 June 1977 confirmed the existence of four important political forces, at the national level. The votes broke down in the following manner: With the success of the Basque Nationalist Party ( Basque : EAJ, Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea ; Spanish : PNV, Partido Nacionalista Vasco ) winning 8 seats and the Democratic Pact for Catalonia (PDC, Pacte Democrátic per Catalunya ) winning 11 seats in their respective regions, nationalist parties also began to show their political strength in these elections. The Constituent Cortes (elected Spanish parliament) then began to draft
6992-517: The Cortes rejected changes to the Criminal Code, which had previously made it a crime to be affiliated with a political party other than FET y de las JONS . The members of the Cortes, who vehemently opposed the legalization of the Communist Party, added an amendment to the law that banned political organizations that "submitted to an international discipline" and "advocated for the implantation of
7144-640: The Fundamental Laws. It also had to garner support within the Armed Forces and in the Spanish Labour Organisation . It also needed to appease the democratic opposition to Francoism. The approach towards the dissenters was that they would not be part of the reform process, but would be allowed to participate in politics more generally, with the exception of the Communist Party of Spain ( Partido Comunista de España , PCE). This conservative reform
7296-449: The June 1977 and March 1979 elections. To exercise power, the UCD had to form parliamentary coalitions with other political parties. From 1979, the government spent much of its time working to hold together the many factions within the party itself, as well as their coalitions. In 1980, the Suárez government had, for the most part, accomplished its goal of a transition to democracy and lacked
7448-525: The Master to a comparison of the golden age to what he calls the Washington Consensus period, which he dates as spanning 1980–2009 (1973–1980 being a transitional period): Skidelsky suggests the high global growth during the golden age was especially impressive as during that period Japan was the only major Asian economy enjoying high growth (Taiwan and South Korea at the time being small economies). It
7600-507: The People's Republic of China's international relations changed significantly following its recognition by the United Nations, the death of Mao Zedong and the beginning of market liberalization by Mao's successors. Despite facing an oil crisis due to the OPEC embargo, the economy of Japan witnessed a large boom in this period, overtaking the economy of West Germany to become the second-largest in
7752-510: The Political Reform Act. Suárez had to risk even more to involve the opposition forces in his plan. In December 1976, the PSOE celebrated its 27th Congress in Madrid , and began to disassociate itself from the demands of the PCE, affirming that it would participate in the next call for elections for the Constituent Cortes. At the beginning of 1977, the year of the elections, Suárez confronted
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#17328448897777904-712: The Principles of the Movimiento Nacional (National Movement), the political system of the Franco era; took possession of the crown before the Francoist Cortes Españolas ; and respected the Organic Law of the State for the appointment of his first head of government . Only in his speech before the Cortes did he indicate his support for a transformation of the Spanish political system. This de facto alliance between Juan Carlos and
8056-552: The Soviet Lunokhod program, a series of robotic lunar missions which included the first uncrewed sample return from another world, and the American Voyagers , which took advantage of a rare alignment of the outer planets to visit all of them except Pluto by the end of the 1980s. China entered the space race in 1970 with the launching of its first satellite , but technological backwardness and limited funds would prevent
8208-515: The Transition. While often cited as a paradigm of peaceful, negotiated transition, political violence during the Spanish transition was far more prevalent than during the analogous democratization processes in Greece or Portugal , with the emergence of separatist, leftist, fascist and vigilante terrorist groups and police violence. The re-democratization also led to Spain's integration into Europe,
8360-580: The U.S., with over a million cars sold per year by this point. Other popular compact cars included the Toyota Corolla and the Datsun Sunny , in addition to other cars from those companies and others such as Subaru , Mitsubishi , and Mazda . The role of women in society was profoundly altered with growing feminism across the world and with the presence and rise of a significant number of women as heads of state outside monarchies and heads of government in
8512-559: The UK itself was experiencing the greatest absolute prosperity in its history. In France, this period is often looked back to with nostalgia as the Trente Glorieuses , or "Glorious Thirty", while the economies of West Germany and Austria were characterized by Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle), and in Italy it is called Miracolo economico (economic miracle). Most developing countries also did well in this period. Belgium experienced
8664-400: The US and UK) to deal with their existing government debt level and also to reduce the level of debt without needing to direct a high portion of government spending to debt service. Much property was destroyed in war. In the inter-war period, the Great Depression also caused investments to lose value. During both World Wars, progressive taxation and capital levies were introduced, with
8816-403: The United States at that time. High marginal tax rates for the wealthiest 1% were in place throughout Japan's decades of post-war growth South Korea, after the Korean War saw a similar trajectory. Marginal tax rates were high on the rich, until falling quickly in the 1990s. The state also legislated significant land reform , cutting deeply into a landholding elite's power and clientelism. In
8968-470: The United States running its last trade surplus (as of 2009) in 1975. In contrast, Japan and West Germany experienced economic booms and started overtaking the U.S. as the world's leading manufacturers. In 1970, Japan overtook West Germany to become the world's second-largest economy. Japan would rank as the world's second-largest economy until 1994 when the European Economic Area (18 countries under
9120-424: The United States, customers with a license plate ending in an odd number were only allowed to buy gasoline on odd-numbered days, while even-numbered plate-holders could only purchase gasoline on even-numbered days. The realization that oil reserves were not endless and technological development was not sustainable without potentially harming the environment ended the belief in limitless progress that had existed since
9272-547: The United States. The sharp rise in oil prices due to the 1973 oil crisis hastened the transition to the post-industrial economy , and a multitude of social problems have since emerged. During the 1970s steel crisis , demand for steel declined, and the Western world faced competition from newly industrialized countries . This was especially harsh for mining and steel districts such as the North American Rust Belt and
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#17328448897779424-583: The United States. In 1950, the average income in France was 55% of that of an American; it reached 80% in 1973. Among the "major" nations, only Japan had faster growth in this era than France. The extended period of transformation and modernization also involved an increasing internationalization of the French economy. France by the 1980s had become a leading world economic power and the world's fourth-largest exporter of manufactured products. It became Europe's largest agricultural producer and exporter, accounting for more than 10 percent of world trade in such goods by
9576-618: The West German Ruhr area . Spanish transition to democracy The Spanish transition to democracy , known in Spain as la Transición ( IPA: [la tɾansiˈθjon] ; ' the Transition ' ) or la Transición española ( ' the Spanish Transition ' ), is a period of modern Spanish history encompassing the regime change that moved from the Francoist dictatorship to
9728-440: The West in foreign trade, GNP, and general quality of life. The high economic growth and political tranquility of the mid to late 1960s were slowed by the quadrupling of oil prices in 1973. Almost completely dependent on imports for petroleum, Japan experienced its first recession since World War II. Another serious problem was Japan's growing trade surplus, which reached record heights. The United States pressured Japan to remedy
9880-431: The afternoon of 23 February 1981. The coup leaders claimed to be acting in the king's name. However, early on the following morning, Juan Carlos gave a nationwide speech unequivocally opposing it, saying that "the Crown, symbol of the permanence and unity of the nation, will not tolerate, in any degree whatsoever, the actions or behavior of anyone attempting, through use of force, to interrupt the democratic process." The coup
10032-446: The army and exercised influence over important sectors of the military. The ever-present threat of a coup d’etat from the hardliners required careful navigation. To resolve the issue, Suárez intended to support himself with a liberal group within the military, centered on General Díez Alegría . Suárez gave the members of this group the positions of authority with the most responsibility. The most notable personality of this faction within
10184-461: The army was General Manuel Gutiérrez Mellado . However, in July 1976, the Vice President for Defense Affairs was General Fernando de Santiago , a member of a hardline group within the army. De Santiago had shown his restlessness before, during the first amnesty in July 1976. He had opposed the law granting the right to unionize. Suárez dismissed Fernando de Santiago, nominating Gutiérrez Mellado instead. This confrontation with General de Santiago caused
10336-470: The beginning year of the golden age, while Robert Skidelsky states 1951 is the most recognized start date. Both Skidelsky and Middleton have 1973 as the generally recognized end date, though sometimes the golden age is considered to have ended as early as 1970. This long-term business cycle ended with a number of events in the early 1970s: While this is the global period, specific countries experienced business expansions for different periods; in Taiwan ,
10488-499: The changes through a popular referendum . On 15 December 1976, with a 77.72% participation rate, 94% of voters indicated their support for the changes. From this moment, it was possible to begin the electoral process (the second part of the Suárez program), which would serve to elect the members of the Constituent Cortes , the body that was to be responsible for creating a democratic constitution. With this part of his plan fulfilled, Suárez had to resolve another issue: should he include
10640-399: The commission meant that Fraga and the reformists lost control of much of the legislative direction of the country; the reformists had been planning updated "Laws of Assembly and Association", which included a reform of the Spanish Criminal Code . Even so, the new Law of Assembly was passed by the Francoist Cortes on 25 May 1976, allowing public demonstration with government authorization. On
10792-461: The conditions for a larger series of global changes at the height of the Cold War , including postmodernism , decolonisation , a marked increase in consumerism , the welfare state , the space race , the Non-Aligned Movement , import substitution , counterculture of the 1960s , the beginning of second-wave feminism , and a nuclear arms race . In 2000, economist Roger Middleton wrote that economic historians generally agree that 1950 represented
10944-657: The conditions that the opposition groups first demanded in 1974. These opposition forces met in November 1976 to create an association of democratic organizations called the Democratic Convergence Platform . Suárez had initiated political contact with the opposition by meeting with Felipe González , secretary general of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), in August 1976. The positive attitude of
11096-404: The consequence of a complex transition, riddled with conflicts, foreseen and unforeseen obstacles and problems, in the context of economic crisis and political uncertainty." However, as then-prime minister González said later, "the state apparatus was retained, in its entirety, from the dictatorship". Importantly, most of the significant aspects in the Transition were adopted by consensus between
11248-407: The consolidation of a parliamentary system , in the form of constitutional monarchy under Juan Carlos I . The democratic transition began after the death of Francisco Franco , in November 1975. Initially, "the political elites left over from Francoism" attempted "to reform of the institutions of dictatorship" through existing legal means, but social and political pressure saw the formation of
11400-471: The continuation of terrorist attacks by ETA (m) ("ETA Military"; later simply "ETA") or to a lesser extent, GRAPO. Meanwhile, restlessness in various sections of the armed forces created fear of an impending military coup . Reactionary elements in the army attempted a coup known as 23-F , in which Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero led an occupation by a group of Guardia Civil of the Congress of Deputies , on
11552-486: The country from becoming a significant force in space exploration. Japan launched a satellite for the first time in 1972. The European Space Agency was founded during the decade as well. Social science intersected with hard science in the works in natural language processing by Terry Winograd (1973) and the establishment of the first cognitive sciences department in the world at MIT in 1979. The fields of generative linguistics and cognitive psychology went through
11704-600: The decade as outdated industries proved unable to compete with Japanese and German wares. Labor strikes happened with such frequency as to almost paralyze the country's infrastructure. Following the Winter of Discontent , Margaret Thatcher was elected prime minister in 1979 with the purpose of implementing extreme economic reforms. In Eastern Europe, Soviet-style command economies began showing signs of stagnation, in which successes were persistently dogged by setbacks. The oil shock increased East European, particularly Soviet, exports, but
11856-492: The decade. Muscle cars and convertible models faded from favor during the early-1970s. It was believed that the 1976 Cadillac Eldorado would be the last American-built convertible; ending the open body style that once dominated the auto industry. Cars in the U.S. from the early 1970s are noted more for their power than their styling, but they even lost their power by Malaise era of the late-1970s. Styling on American cars became progressively more boxy and rectilinear during
12008-501: The decline and practical failure of the British car industry—a combination of militant strikes and poor quality control effectively halted development at British Leyland , owner of all other British car companies during the 1970s. The Japanese automobile industry flourished during the 1970s, compared to other major auto markets. Japanese vehicles became internationally renowned for their affordability, reliability, and fuel-efficiency, which
12160-603: The development and implementation of a wide range of domestic and international economic policy issues. In its first 7 years the CEA made five technical advances in policy making: The economies of the United States , Japan , West Germany , France , and Italy did particularly well. Japan and West Germany caught up to and exceeded the GDP of the United Kingdom during these years, even as
12312-508: The development of: The 1970s were also the start of: British Rail introduced high-speed trains on InterCity services. The trains consisted of British Rail Class 43 diesel-electric locomotives at either end with British Rail Mark 3 carriages. The trains were built in the United Kingdom by British Rail Engineering Limited . The high speed trains ran at 125 miles per hour (201 km/h) speeding up journeys between towns and cities and
12464-629: The door to parliamentary democracy in Spain, this legislation could not simply create a new political system by eliminating the obstacles put in place by the Franco regime against democracy: it had to liquidate the Francoist system through the Francoist Cortes itself. The Cortes, under the presidency of Fernández-Miranda, debated this bill throughout the month of November; it ultimately approved it, with 425 votes in favor, 59 against, and 13 abstentions. The Suárez government sought to gain further legitimacy for
12616-546: The early 1970s was one of the greatest eras of economic expansion in world history. In the US, Gross Domestic Product increased from $ 228 billion in 1945 to just under $ 1.7 trillion in 1975. By 1975, the US economy represented some 35% of the entire world industrial output, and the US economy was over 3 times larger than that of Japan, the next largest economy. The expansion was interrupted in the United States by five recessions ( 1948–49 , 1953–54 , 1957–58 , 1960–61 , and 1969–70 ). $ 200 billion in war bonds matured, and
12768-471: The early 1970s, as Social Democratic Prime Minister Tage Erlander held his office from 1946 to 1969. Sweden used to be a country of emigrants until the 1930s, but the demand for labor spurred immigration to Sweden, especially from Finland and countries like Greece, Italy and Yugoslavia. Urbanization was fast, and housing shortage in urban areas was imminent until the Million Programme was launched in
12920-639: The elections pushed Suárez to take the riskiest step of the transition: the legalization of the PCE in April 1977. However, throughout this critical period the government began a strategy of providing greater institutional space to the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) union, more moderate and linked to the Socialists, in comparison to the Communist-oriented CCOO . The manner in which a unified trade union
13072-438: The engine for economic growth of all of Western Europe. Labor unions' support of the new policies, postponed wage increases, minimized strikes, supported technological modernization, and a policy of co-determination (Mitbestimmung), which involved a satisfactory grievance resolution system and required the representation of workers on the boards of large corporations, all contributed to such a prolonged economic growth. The recovery
13224-559: The failure of the Vietnam War. As part of détente, the US also restored ties with the People's Republic of China, partially as a counterweight against Soviet expansionism. The US–Soviet geopolitical rivalry nonetheless continued through the decade, although in a more indirect faction as the two superpowers jockeyed relentlessly for control of smaller countries. American and Soviet intelligence agencies gave funding, training, and material support to insurgent groups, governments, and armies across
13376-540: The form of Islamic fundamentalism, as the Shi'a theocracy of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini overthrew the Shah of Iran and declared itself hostile to both Western democracy and godless communism. People were deeply influenced by the rapid pace of societal change and the aspiration for a more egalitarian society in cultures that were long colonized and have an even longer history of hierarchical social structure . The Green Revolution of
13528-562: The formal end of the Spanish Empire . The continent was, however, plagued by endemic military coups, with the long-reigning Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie being removed, civil wars and famine. The economies of much of the developing world continued to make steady progress in the early 1970s because of the Green Revolution . However, their economic growth was slowed by the oil crisis, although it boomed afterwards. The 1970s saw
13680-541: The foundation for development in the region during the 1970s and beyond. Economically, the 1970s were marked by the energy crisis which peaked in 1973 and 1979 (see 1973 oil crisis and 1979 oil crisis ). After the first oil shock in 1973, gasoline was rationed in many countries. Europe particularly depended on the Middle East for oil; the United States was also affected even though it had its own oil reserves. Many European countries introduced car-free days and weekends. In
13832-607: The foundation of what was to become the European Union in later years. Institutional economists point to the international institutions established in the post-war period. Structurally, the victorious Allies established the United Nations and the Bretton Woods monetary system , international institutions designed to promote stability. This was achieved through a number of policies, including promoting free trade , instituting
13984-402: The generally-stated aim of distributing the sacrifices required by the war more evenly. While tax rates dipped between the wars, they did not return to pre-war levels. Top tax rates increased dramatically, in some cases tenfold. This had a significant effect on both income and wealth distributions. Such policies were commonly referred to as the "conscription of income" and "conscription of wealth".
14136-564: The global struggle between NATO , the Warsaw Pact , and the Non-Aligned Movement . Many regions had periods of high-intensity conflict, notably Southeast Asia , the Middle East , Latin America , and Africa . In the Western world, social progressive values that began in the 1960s , such as increasing political awareness and economic liberty of women , continued to grow. In the United Kingdom,
14288-450: The globe, each seeking to gain a geopolitical advantage and install friendly governments. Coups, civil wars, and terrorism went on across Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and also in Europe where a spate of Soviet-backed Marxist terrorist groups were active throughout the decade. Over half the world's population in the 1970s lived under a repressive dictatorship. In 1979, a new wrinkle appeared in
14440-578: The government to retire factious generals who regarded it as their duty to maintain the existing constitution. The King did not initially appoint a new prime minister, leaving in place the incumbent head of government under Franco, Carlos Arias Navarro . Arias Navarro had not initially planned a reform of the Francoist regime; in the National Council of the Movement , an advisory assembly of the ruling FET y de las JONS ( Falange ) party and other groups in
14592-514: The government was the one proposed by Manuel Fraga , rejecting Antonio Garrigues' plan to elect a constituent assembly . Fraga's programme aimed to achieve a "liberal democracy" that was "comparable to the rest of the Western European countries" through a "gradual and controlled process", through a series of reforms of the pseudo-constitutional Fundamental Laws of the Realm . This is why his proposal
14744-523: The governments and the opposition. In addition to this pragmatic, civic, "a-nationalist" leadership in Madrid, contributing factors to the success of the Transition were a Monarchy as a cohesive unitary symbol and the neutralisation of the Army's influence on political life. Additionally, the contrasting action of Basque violence and the peaceful mobilisation of Catalonia, successfully transformed Spanish politics during
14896-553: The head of government, and Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo was appointed, first to lead the new cabinet, and later, to the presidency of the UCD; social democrats led by Francisco Fernández Ordóñez defected from the coalition, later joining the PSOE, while Christian democrats left to form the People's Democratic Party . While the democratic normalization had succeeded in convincing ETA (pm) , the "political-military" faction of ETA, to abandon arms and enter parliamentary politics, it did not stop
15048-449: The highest in history. A rising cost of housing was reflected in the average price of a new home in the U.S. The average price of a new home in the U.S. was $ 23,450 in 1970 up to $ 68,700 by 1980. By the time of 1980, when U.S. President Jimmy Carter was running for re-election against Ronald Reagan , the misery index (the sum of the unemployment rate and the inflation rate) had reached an all-time high of 21.98%. The economic problems of
15200-760: The highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers. Another explanation for this period is the theory of the permanent war economy , which suggests that the large spending on the military helped stabilize the global economy; this has also been referred to as " Military Keynesianism ". This also goes into hand with retired WWII vets with pensions to spend. This period also saw financial repression —low nominal interest rates and low or negative real interest rates (nominal rates lower than inflation plus taxation), via government policy—resulting respectively in debt servicing costs being low (low nominal rates) and in liquidation of existing debt (via inflation and taxation). This allowed countries (such as
15352-466: The history of this country. Unemployment figures show that unemployment was significantly lower during the Golden Age than before or after: In addition to superior economic performance, other social indexes were higher in the golden age; for example the proportion of Britain's population saying they were "very happy" fell from 52% in 1957 to just 36% in 2005. The period from the end of World War II to
15504-426: The imbalance, demanding that Tokyo raise the value of the yen and open its markets further to facilitate more imports from the United States. In early 1950s, the Soviet Union, having reconstructed the ruins left by the war, experienced a decade of prosperous, undisturbed, and rapid economic growth, with significant and remarkable technological achievements most notably the first earth satellite . The nation made it to
15656-593: The influence of developmentalist economics led by Raúl Prebisch . One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956. He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War . It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence
15808-814: The kidnapping of two important figures of the regime: the President of the Council of the State José María de Oriol , and General Villaescusa, President of the Superior Council of the Military Justice. From the right, during these kidnappings, members of the neo-fascist Alianza Apostólica Anticomunista conducted the Atocha massacre, three of them labor lawyers , in an office on Atocha Street in Madrid, in January 1977. In
15960-402: The landslide victory of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in the 1982 general election and the first peaceful transfer of executive power . Democracy was on the road to being consolidated. The end result of the Transition according to Casanova was "at least from 1982 onwards, a parliamentary monarchy, based on a democratic constitution, with a large number of rights and freedoms,
16112-503: The late 1960s brought about self-sufficiency in food in many developing economies. At the same time an increasing number of people began to seek urban prosperity over agrarian life. This consequently saw the duality of transition of diverse interaction across social communities amid increasing information blockade across social class. Another common global ethos of the 1970s world included increasingly flexible and varied gender roles for women in industrialized societies. More women could enter
16264-534: The middle of 1976 had seemed open to a limited truce after Franco's death, resumed armed confrontation again in October. The time from 1978 to 1980 would be ETA's three deadliest years ever. However, it was between December 1976 and January 1977 that a series of attacks brought about a situation of high tension in Spain. The Maoist GRAPO ( Grupos de Resistencia Antifascista Primero de Octubre ) began its armed struggle by bombing public locations, and then continued with
16416-496: The midst of these provocations, Suárez convened his first meeting with a significant number of opposition leaders, who published a condemnation of terrorism and gave their support to Suárez's actions. During this turbulent time, the Búnker capitalized on the instability and declared that the country was on the brink of chaos. Despite the increased violence by the ETA and GRAPO, elections for
16568-479: The nature of conscription of current income above that which is absolutely necessary". Rationing of goods was also widely used, with the aim of distributing scarce resources efficiently. Rationing was widely done with ration stamps , a second currency that entitled the bearer to buy (with regular money) a certain amount of a certain sort of good (for instance, two ounces of meat, or a certain amount of clothing or fuel). Price controls were also used (for instance,
16720-448: The next six years, Prince Juan Carlos remained in the background during public appearances and seemed ready to follow in Franco's footsteps. Once in power as King of Spain , however, he facilitated the development of a constitutional monarchy as his father, Don Juan de Borbón , had advocated since 1946. King Juan Carlos I began his reign as head of state without leaving the confines of Franco's legal system. As such, he swore fidelity to
16872-496: The officers strongly declared opposition to the legalization of the PCE. The PCE, for its part, acted ever more publicly to express its opinions. According to the Communists, the Political Reform Act was anti-democratic and the elections for the Constituent Cortes should be called by a provisional government including members from the opposition. The Communists particularly and the opposition more broadly did not show any enthusiasm for
17024-519: The opposition groups who had not participated at the beginning of the transition? Suárez also had to deal with a third problem: coming to terms with the anti-Francoist opposition. Suárez adopted a series of measured policies to add credibility to his project. He issued a partial political amnesty in July 1976, freeing 400 prisoners; he then extended this in March 1977, and finally granted a blanket amnesty in May of
17176-414: The other having an " organic " character. Torcuato Fernández-Miranda , the president of the Council of the Realm , placed Adolfo Suárez on a list of three candidates for King Juan Carlos to choose to become the new head of government, replacing Arias Navarro. The king chose Suárez because he felt he could meet the challenge of the difficult political process that lay ahead: persuading the Cortes, which
17328-452: The period was accompanied by low inflation and sharp increases in real living standards. However, lack of capital investment meant that Belgium's heavy industry was ill-equipped to compete with other European industries in the 1950s. This contributed to the start of deindustrialisation in Wallonia and the emergence of regional economic disparities. Between 1947 and 1973, France went through
17480-425: The political forces opposed to maintaining the status quo is considered to be a key part to the success of Spain’s transition to democracy. The transition was an ambitious plan that counted on ample support both within and outside of Spain. Western governments, headed by the United States , now favoured a Spanish constitutional monarchy, as did many Spanish and international liberal capitalists . The spectre of
17632-500: The political normalization of the country meant neither anarchy nor revolution. In this, he counted on the cooperation of Santiago Carrillo, but he could in no way count on the cooperation of terrorist groups. The Basque Country remained, for the better part of this period, in a state of political turbulence. Suárez granted a multi-stage amnesty for numerous Basque political prisoners, but the confrontations continued between local police and protesters. The separatist group ETA , which in
17784-408: The post WWII period saw the widespread introduction of the following: Keynesian economists argue that the post war expansion was caused by adoption of Keynesian economic policies . Naomi Klein has argued the high growth enjoyed by Europe and America was the result of Keynesian economic policies and in the case of rapidly rising prosperity that this post war period saw in parts of South America, by
17936-473: The price of restaurant meals was capped). In the post-war period, progressive taxation persisted. Inheritance taxes also had an effect. Rationing in the United Kingdom lasted until 1954. Allied war bonds matured during the post-war years, transferring cash from governments to private households. In Japan, progressive tax rates were imposed during the Allied occupation , at rates that roughly matched those in
18088-506: The problem of legalizing the PCE. After the public indignation against anti-reformists aroused by the Massacre of Atocha in January 1977, when far-right terrorists murdered labor leaders aligned with the PCE, Suárez opened negotiations with Communist leader Santiago Carrillo in February. Carrillo's willingness to cooperate without prior demands and his offer of a "social pact" for the period after
18240-485: The realm of portability and home accessibility . There were also great advances in fields such as physics, which saw the consolidation of quantum field theory at the end of the decade, mainly thanks to the confirmation of the existence of quarks and the detection of the first gauge bosons in addition to the photon , the Z boson and the gluon , part of what was christened in 1975 as the Standard Model . In Asia,
18392-506: The replacement of Keynesian economic theory with neoliberal economic theory, with the first neoliberal government coming to power with the 1973 Chilean coup d'état . The 1970s was also an era of great technological and scientific advances; since the appearance of the first commercial microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1971, the decade was characterised by a profound transformation of computing units – by then rudimentary, spacious machines – into
18544-538: The same day the Law of Political Associations was also approved, supported by Suárez, who affirmed in parliamentary session that "if Spain is plural, the Cortes cannot afford to deny it". Suárez's intervention in favor of this reform shocked many, including Juan Carlos I. This intervention was key in Juan Carlos' decision to appoint Suárez as Prime Minister in the following month. The Arias-Fraga reform collapsed on 11 June, when
18696-593: The same year. In December 1976, the Tribunal de Orden Público (TOP), a sort of Francoist secret police , was dissolved. The right to strike was legalized in March 1977, with the right to unionize being granted the following month. Also in March, a new electoral system act ( Ley Electoral ) introduced the necessary framework for Spain's electoral system to be brought into accord with those of other countries that were liberal parliamentary democracies . Through these and other measures of government, Suárez complied with
18848-401: The sixties, Lidia Gueiler Tejada becoming the interim President of Bolivia beginning from 1979 to 1980, Maria de Lourdes Pintasilgo becoming the first woman Prime Minister of Portugal in 1979, and Margaret Thatcher becoming the first woman Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1979. Both Indira Gandhi and Margaret Thatcher would remain important political figures in the following decade in
19000-419: The social democrats, who had just broken from the UCD. Winning an absolute majority in parliament in two consecutive elections (1982 and 1986 ), and exactly half the seats in 1989 , allowed the PSOE to legislate and govern without establishing pacts with the other parliamentary political forces. In this way, the PSOE could make laws to achieve the goals of its political program, " el cambio " ("the change"). At
19152-490: The socialist leader gave further support for Suárez to carry forward his reforms, but everyone clearly perceived that the big problem for the political normalization of the country would be the legalization of the Communist Party (PCE), which at the time had more activists and was more organized than any other group in the political opposition. However, in a meeting between Suárez and the most important military leaders in September,
19304-508: The spectacular reentry of Skylab over Australia. NASA had planned for a Shuttle mission to the space station, but the shuttles were not ready to fly until 1981, too late to save it. Meanwhile, the Soviets, having failed in their attempt at crewed lunar landings, canceled the program in 1972. By then, however, they had already begun Salyut , the world's first space station program, which began in 1971. This would have problems of its own, especially
19456-411: The top 15 countries with highest GDP per capita in the mid-1950s. However, the growth slowed by the mid-1960s, as the government started pouring resources into large military and space projects, and the civilian sector gradually languished. While every other major nation greatly expanded its service sector, in the Soviet Union it was given low priority. Following Khrushchev's ouster, and the appointment of
19608-463: The towns and cities—a process largely completed by 1960. West Germany , under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and economic minister Ludwig Erhard , saw prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s. Journalists dubbed it the Wirtschaftswunder or "Economic Miracle". Industrial production doubled from 1950 to 1957, and gross national product grew at a rate of 9 or 10% per year, providing
19760-511: The tragic loss of the Soyuz ;11 crew in July 1971 and the near-loss of the Soyuz 18a crew during launch in April 1975. It eventually proved a success, with missions as long as six months being conducted by the end of the decade. In terms of uncrewed missions, a variety of lunar and planetary probes were launched by the US and Soviet programs during the decade. The most successful of these include
19912-561: The war and the draft. Riots ensued during the weekend and the National Guard was called in to maintain the peace. However, by 4 May 1970, tensions arose again, and as the crowd grew larger, the National Guard started shooting. Four students were killed and nine were injured. This event caused disbelief and shock throughout the country and became a staple of anti-Vietnam demonstrations. Post%E2%80%93World War II economic expansion The post–World War II economic expansion , also known as
20064-494: The war damage and began to boom, with the fastest growth rates in the world. Given a boost by the Korean War , in which it acted as a major supplier to the UN force, Japan's economy embarked on a prolonged period of extremely rapid growth, led by the manufacturing sectors. Japan emerged as a significant power in many economic spheres, including steel working, car manufacturing and the manufacturing of electronics. Japan rapidly caught up with
20216-510: The war, such as Japan ( Japanese economic miracle ), West Germany and Austria ( Wirtschaftswunder ), South Korea ( Miracle on the Han River ), Belgium ( Belgian economic miracle ), France ( Trente Glorieuses ), Italy ( Italian economic miracle ) and Greece ( Greek economic miracle ). Even countries that were relatively unaffected by the war such as Sweden ( Record years ) experienced considerable economic growth. The boom established
20368-475: The western Allies. After the war, the major powers were determined not to repeat the mistakes of the Great Depression , some of which were ascribed to post–World War I policy errors. The Marshall Plan for the rebuilding of Europe is most credited for reconciliation, though the immediate post-war situations was more complicated. In 1948 the Marshall Plan pumped over $ 12 billion to rebuild and modernize Western Europe. The European Coal and Steel Community formed
20520-472: The workforce. However, the gender role of men remained as that of a breadwinner. The period also saw the socioeconomic effect of an ever-increasing number of women entering the non-agrarian economic workforce. The Iranian revolution also affected global attitudes toward and among those of the Muslim faith toward the end of the 1970s. The global experience of the cultural transition of the 1970s and an experience of
20672-510: The world population increase from 3.7 to 4.4 billion, with approximately 1.23 billion births and 475 million deaths occurring during the decade. The most notable wars and/or other conflicts of the decade include: The most notable International conflicts of the decade include: The most prominent coups d'état of the decade include: The most notable terrorist attacks of the decade include: Worldwide Americas Europe Asia Africa Superpower tensions had cooled by
20824-633: The world saw only 38 financial crises, whereas from 1973 to 1997 (24 years) there were 139. High productivity growth from before the war continued after the war and until the early 1970s. Manufacturing was aided by automation technologies such as feedback controllers , which appeared in the late 1930s were a fast-growing area of investment following the war. Wholesale and retail trade benefited from new highway systems, distribution warehouses, and material handling equipment such as forklifts and intermodal containers . Oil displaced coal in many applications, particularly in locomotives and ships. In agriculture,
20976-699: The world. The United States withdrew its military forces from the Vietnam War . In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, which led to the Soviet–Afghan War . The 1970s saw an initial increase in violence in the Middle East as Egypt and Syria declared war on Israel, starting the Yom Kippur War , but in the late 1970s, the situation was fundamentally altered when Egypt signed the Egyptian–Israeli Peace Treaty . Political tensions in Iran exploded with
21128-485: Was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958. The post-war economic boom had many social, cultural, and political effects (not least of which was the demographic bulge termed the baby boom ). Movements and phenomena associated with this period include the height of the Cold War , postmodernism , decolonisation , a marked increase in consumerism , the welfare state , the space race ,
21280-474: Was accelerated by the currency reform of June 1948 , US gifts of $ 1.4 billion Marshall Plan aid, the breaking down of old trade barriers and traditional practices, and the opening of the global market. West Germany gained legitimacy and respect, as it shed the horrible reputation Germany had gained under the Nazis. West Germany played a central role in the creation of European cooperation; it joined NATO in 1955 and
21432-523: Was broken later that day, but demonstrated the existence of insurrectionary elements within the army. Calvo Sotelo dissolved parliament and called for elections in October 1982. In the 1979 election, the UCD had achieved a plurality, but in 1982, it suffered a spectacular defeat with only 11 seats in the Parliament. The 1982 elections gave an absolute majority to the PSOE, which had already spent many years preparing its image of an alternative government. At
21584-556: Was carried out without delay between July 1976 and June 1977. He had to act on many fronts during this short period of time in order to achieve his aims. The draft of the Political Reform Act ( Ley para la Reforma Política ) was written by Torcuato Fernández-Miranda, speaker of the Cortes, who handed it over to the Suárez government in July 1976. The project was approved by the Suarez Government in September 1976. To open
21736-447: Was composed of appointed Francoist politicians, to dismantle Franco's system. In this manner, he would formally act within the Francoist legal system and thus avoid the prospect of military intervention in the political process. Suárez was appointed as the 138th Prime Minister of Spain by Juan Carlos on 3 July 1976, a move that, given his Francoist past, was opposed by leftists and some centrists. As Prime Minister, Suárez quickly presented
21888-512: Was dubbed as a "reform in the continuity", and his support came mostly from those who defended a Francoist sociological model. In order for reform to succeed, it had to earn the support of the hardcore Francoist faction known as the Búnker , which had a major presence in the Cortes and the National Council of the Movement, the two institutions that would have to eventually approve the reforms of
22040-453: Was due to the ambitions of several Italian businesspeople, the opening of new industries (helped by the discovery of hydrocarbons, made for iron and steel, in the Po valley ), re-construction and the modernisation of most Italian cities, such as Milan, Rome and Turin, and the aid given to the country after World War II (notably through the Marshall Plan ). After 1950 Japan's economy recovered from
22192-453: Was no need for further missions. There was also a growing sentiment that the billions of dollars spent on the space program should be put to other uses. The Moon landings continued through 1972, but the near loss of the Apollo ;13 mission in April 1970 served to further anti- NASA feelings. Plans for missions up to Apollo 20 were canceled, and the remaining Apollo and Saturn hardware
22344-563: Was not until later that the world had the exceptional growth of China raising the global average. Skidelsky also reports that inequality was generally decreasing during the golden age, whereas since the Washington Consensus was formed it has been increasing. Globally, the golden age was a time of unusual financial stability, with crises far less frequent and intense than before or after. Martin Wolf reports that between 1945 and 1971 (27 years)
22496-543: Was partly inspired by the historical period of the semi-democratic Bourbon Restoration (1876–1931), and was criticised for not taking into account the social and political circumstances of the time. The project coalesced into a proposal to reform three of the Fundamental Laws, but the exact changes would be determined by a mixed commission of the Government and the National Council of the Movement, as proposed by Torcuato Fernández-Miranda and Adolfo Suárez . The creation of
22648-464: Was strategically countered is an important feature of the Spanish transition, as it limited radical opposition and created the basis for a fractured industrial relations system. Adolfo Suárez knew well that the Búnker —a group of hard-line Francoists led by José Antonio Girón and Blas Piñar , using the newspapers El Alcázar and Arriba as their mouthpieces—had close contacts with officials in
22800-454: Was suffering from a worsening financial situation caused by various factors. By 1979, the company was near bankruptcy, and under its new president Lee Iacocca (who had been fired from Ford the year before), asked for a government bailout. American Motors beat out the U.S. Big Three to subcompact sized model (the Gremlin ) in 1970, but its fortunes declined throughout the decade, forcing it into
22952-605: Was used for the Skylab space station program in 1973–1974, and for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), which was carried out in July 1975. Many of the ambitious projects NASA had planned for the 1970s were canceled amid heavy budget cutbacks, and instead it would devote most of the decade to the development of the Space Shuttle . ASTP was the last crewed American space flight for the next five years. The year 1979 witnessed
23104-410: Was very important to many customers after the oil crisis of 1973. Japanese car manufacturing focused on computerized robotic manufacturing techniques and lean manufacturing , contributing to high-efficiency and low production costs. The Honda Civic was introduced in 1973, and sold well due to its high fuel-efficiency. By 1975 Toyota overtook Volkswagen as the top-selling imported automobile brand in
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