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108-587: These seven events represented an attempt by Church leaders to reach an orthodox consensus, restore peace and develop a unified Christendom . Among Eastern Christians the Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , and Church of the East (Assyrian) churches and among Western Christians the Roman Catholic , Anglican , Utrecht and Polish National Old Catholic , and some Scandinavian Lutheran churches all trace

216-712: A continuation of the fifth and sixth. The Roman Catholic Church does not accept the Quinisext Council, but both the Roman magisterium as well as a minority of Eastern Orthodox hierarchs and theological writers consider there to have been further ecumenical councils after the first seven (see the Fourth Council of Constantinople , Fifth Council of Constantinople , and fourteen additional post-schism ecumenical councils canonical for Catholics). These seven ecumenical councils are: Emperor Constantine convened this council to settle

324-597: A controversial issue, the relation between Jesus Christ and God the Father . The Emperor wanted to establish universal agreement on it. Representatives came from across the Empire, subsidized by the Emperor. Previous to this council, the bishops would hold local councils, such as the Council of Jerusalem , but there had been no universal, or ecumenical, council. The council drew up a creed,

432-574: A doctrine that won widespread support when formulated in 638; the Council affirmed that Christ had both human and divine wills. Quinisext Council (= Fifth-Sixth Council) or Council in Trullo (692) has not been accepted by the Roman Catholic Church. Since it was mostly an administrative council for raising some local canons to ecumenical status, establishing principles of clerical discipline, addressing

540-411: A much wider role in non-monotheistic (and particularly, non-scriptural) religion. The prevailing governing norm within polytheism is often orthopraxy ('right practice') rather than the "right belief" of orthodoxy. Arianism Arianism ( Koinē Greek : Ἀρειανισμός , Areianismós ) is a Christological doctrine considered heretical by all modern mainstream branches of Christianity. It

648-432: A period of several centuries to try to formalize these doctrines. The most significant of these early decisions was that between the homoousian doctrine of Athanasius and Eustathius (which became Trinitarianism ) and the heteroousian doctrine of Arius and Eusebius of Nicomedia ( Arianism ). The homoousian doctrine, which defined Jesus as both God and man with the canons of the 431 Council of Ephesus , won out in

756-549: A problem could be referred to as unorthodox , while a common and 'normal' mainstream way of solving a problem might be referred to as orthodox . The concept of orthodoxy pre-supposes some degree of agreed cultural standardisation - a system of social norms - whereby opinion can distinguish "correct" belief or doctrine from their "incorrect" equivalents. Where world-views or religious sentiment have not developed standardised, generally accepted systems of thought, orthodoxy cannot take root. The development of writing facilitated

864-596: A public order, that if someone should be discovered to have hidden a writing composed by Arius, and not to have immediately brought it forward and destroyed it by fire, his penalty shall be death. As soon as he is discovered in this offence, he shall be submitted for capital punishment. ... Ten years after the Council of Nicaea, Constantine the Great , who was himself later baptized by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia in 337 AD, convened another gathering of church leaders at

972-708: A rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicæa." The council repudiated the Eutychian doctrine of monophysitism , described and delineated the " Hypostatic Union " and two natures of Christ , human and divine; adopted the Chalcedonian Definition . For those who accept it (Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholics, and most Protestants), it is the Fourth Ecumenical Council (calling

1080-406: Is Sanatana Dharma , but which at best can be translated to mean "ageless traditions", hence denoting that they are accepted not through doctrine and force but through multi-generational tests of adoption and retention based on circumstantial attrition through millennia. Still, the concepts of āstika and nāstika of Indian philosophy are quite similar to orthodoxy and heterodoxy respectively,

1188-564: Is also one additional council, the so-called Quinisext Council of Trullo held in AD 692 between the sixth and seventh ecumenical councils, which issued organizational, liturgical and canonical rules but did not discuss theology. Only within Eastern Orthodoxy is its authority commonly considered ecumenical; however, the Orthodox do not number it among the seven general councils, but rather count it as

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1296-587: Is also used to cover both full heresies and minor errors. Doctrine or practices not regarded as essential to faith, with which Christians can legitimately disagree, are known as adiaphora . The concept of orthodoxy is prevalent in many forms of organized monotheism . However, orthodox belief is not usually overly emphasized in polytheistic or animist religions, in which there is often little or no concept of dogma , and varied interpretations of doctrine and theology are tolerated and sometimes even encouraged within certain contexts. Syncretism , for example, plays

1404-530: Is called Logos only because of resemblance with the inner Logos of God. A verse from Proverbs was used for the creation of the Son: "The Lord created me at the beginning of his work." Therefore, the Son was rather the very first and the most perfect of God's creatures, and he was called "God" only by the Father's permission and power. The definition of "Son" is ambiguous as Arians have applied an adoptionist theology to defend

1512-551: Is called, 'like-in-essence,' there ought to be no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written about them, and that they are above men's knowledge and above men's understanding; As debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene Creed. The first group mainly opposed

1620-627: Is disputed. The council deposed Nestorius, repudiated Nestorianism , and proclaimed the Virgin Mary as the Theotokos . After quoting the Nicene Creed in its original form, as at the First Council of Nicaea, without the alterations and additions made at the First Council of Constantinople, it declared it "unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as

1728-503: Is first attributed to Arius ( c.  AD 256–336 ), a Christian presbyter who preached and studied in Alexandria , Egypt . Arian theology holds that Jesus Christ is the Son of God , who was begotten by God the Father with the difference that the Son of God did not always exist but was begotten/made before time by God the Father; therefore, Jesus was not coeternal with God

1836-579: Is no certainty about what theological and philosophical traditions formed his thought. The influence from the One of Neo-Platonism was widespread throughout the Eastern Roman Empire and this influenced Arius. Arius's basic premise is that only God is independent for his existence. Since the Son is dependent he must therefore be called a creature. Arians put forward a question for their belief: "Has God birthed Jesus willingly or unwillingly?" This question

1944-456: Is not a centralized denomination. Relations between its different subgroups are sometimes strained and the exact limits of Orthodoxy are subject to intense debate. Very roughly, it may be divided between Haredi Judaism , which is more conservative and reclusive, and Modern Orthodox Judaism , which is relatively open to outer society. Each of those is itself formed of independent streams. They are almost uniformly exclusionist, regarding Orthodoxy as

2052-420: Is one God (Gk. theos – θεός), the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord/Master ( kyrios – κύριος), Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist. The creed of Arian Ulfilas (c. 311–383), which concludes the above-mentioned letter by Auxentius, distinguishes God the Father ("unbegotten"), who is the only true God, from the Son of God ("only-begotten"); and

2160-463: Is one God of all, who is also God of our God; and in one Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, as Christ said after his resurrection to his apostles: "And behold, I send the promise of my Father upon you; but tarry ye in the city of Jerusalem, until ye be clothed with power from on high" and again "But ye shall receive power, when the Holy Ghost is come upon you"; Neither God nor Lord, but

2268-508: Is only one nature (i.e. the divine) not two while miaphysites believe that the two natures of Christ are united as one and are distinct in thought only. Eastern Patriarchs supported the Emperor, but in the West his interference was resented, and Pope Vigilius resisted his edict on the grounds that it opposed the Chalcedonian decrees. Justinian's policy was in fact an attack on Antiochene theology and

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2376-486: Is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists , and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus , these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. The council approved the current form of the Nicene Creed used in most Oriental Orthodox churches. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses

2484-579: Is to be sought…only among those who are called Catholic or orthodox Christians, that is, guardians of truth and followers of right." Over time, the Western Church gradually identified with the "Catholic" label, and people of Western Europe gradually associated the "Orthodox" label with the Eastern Church (in some languages the "Catholic" label is not necessarily identified with the Western Church). This

2592-551: The Arian bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople , and surrendered the churches of that city to Gregory of Nazianzus , the Homoiousian leader of the rather small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. In February he and Gratian had published an edict that all their subjects should profess

2700-636: The Biblical canon , without determining matters of doctrine, the Eastern Orthodox Church does not consider it to be a full-fledged council in its own right, viewing it instead as an extension of the fifth and sixth councils. It gave ecclesiastical sanction to the Pentarchy as the government of the state church of the Roman Empire . Second Council of Nicaea (787). In 753, Emperor Constantine V convened

2808-678: The First Synod of Tyre in AD 335, they brought accusations against Athanasius , now bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius. After this, Constantine had Athanasius banished since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the Synod of Jerusalem under Constantine's direction readmitted Arius to communion in 336. Arius died on the way to this event in Constantinople. Some scholars suggest that Arius may have been poisoned by his opponents. Eusebius and Theognis remained in

2916-568: The Jews . The apparent resurgence of Arianism after Nicaea was more an anti-Nicene reaction exploited by Arian sympathizers than a pro-Arian development. By the end of the 4th century it had surrendered its remaining ground to Trinitarianism . In Western Europe, Arianism, which had been taught by Ulfilas , the Arian missionary to the Germanic tribes, was dominant among the Goths , Langobards and Vandals . By

3024-669: The Nicene Creed of 381 , which was supplemented in regard to the Holy Spirit , as well as some other changes: see Comparison of Nicene Creeds of 325 and 381 . This is generally considered the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples. During the time of Arianism's flowering in Constantinople , the Gothic convert and Arian bishop Ulfilas (later

3132-511: The Second Council of Ephesus , which was rejected by this council, the " Robber Synod " or " Robber Council "). In November 448, a synod at Constantinople condemned Eutyches for unorthodoxy. Eutyches, archimandrite (abbot) of a large Constantinopolitan monastery, taught that Christ was not consubstantial with humanity. In 449, Theodosius II summoned a council at Ephesus, where Eutyches was exonerated and returned to his monastery. This council

3240-531: The Synod of Hieria , which declared that images of Jesus misrepresented him and that images of Mary and the saints were idols. The Second Council of Nicaea restored the veneration of icons and ended the first iconoclasm . Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: In

3348-526: The fall of the Western Roman Empire . The antipopes Felix II and Ursinus were Arian, and Pope Liberius was forced to sign the Arian Creed of Sirmium of 357 although the letter says he willingly agreed with Arianism. Such a deep controversy within the early Church during this period of its development could not have materialized without significant historical influences providing a basis for

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3456-500: The original Nicene Creed , which received nearly unanimous support. The council's description of "God's only-begotten Son", Jesus Christ , as of the same substance with God the Father became a touchstone of Christian Trinitarianism . The council also addressed the issue of dating Easter (see Quartodecimanism and Easter controversy ), recognised the right of the See of Alexandria to jurisdiction outside of its own province (by analogy with

3564-605: The orthodox designation as a symbol of their theological traditions. Lutheran orthodoxy was an era in the history of Lutheranism , which began in 1580 from the writing of the Book of Concord and ended at the Age of Enlightenment . Lutheran orthodoxy was paralleled by similar eras in Calvinism and tridentine Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation . Lutheran scholasticism

3672-401: The "Homoian" party, exiling bishops and often using force. During this persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Roman Empire (e.g., Saint Hilary of Poitiers to the eastern provinces). These contacts and the common plight subsequently led to a rapprochement between the western supporters of the Nicene Creed and the homoousios and the eastern Semi-Arians. It was not until

3780-538: The 9th century, Emperor Michael III deposed Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople and Photius was appointed in his place. Pope Nicholas I declared the deposition of Ignatius invalid. After Michael was murdered, Ignatius was reinstated as patriarch without challenge and in 869–870 a council in Constantinople , considered ecumenical in the West, anathematized Photius. With Ignatius' death in 877, Photius became patriarch, and in 879–880 another council in Constantinople , which many Easterners consider ecumenical, annulled

3888-514: The Arian German kingdoms established in the collapsing Western Empire in the 5th century were entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers. The Germanic elites were Arians, and the Romance majority population was Nicene. The Arian Germanic tribes were generally tolerant towards Nicene Christians and other religious minorities, including

3996-552: The Arian doctrines. Arius had been a pupil of Lucian of Antioch at Lucian's private academy in Antioch and inherited from him a modified form of the teachings of Paul of Samosata . Arius taught that God the Father and the Son of God did not always exist together eternally. Emperor Constantine the Great summoned the First Council of Nicaea , which defined the dogmatic fundaments of Christianity; these definitions served to rebut

4104-602: The Church and was referred to as orthodoxy in most Christian contexts, since this was the viewpoint of previous Christian Church Fathers and was reaffirmed at these councils. (The minority of nontrinitarian Christians object to this terminology.) Following the 1054 Great Schism , both the Western Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church continued to consider themselves uniquely orthodox and catholic . Augustine wrote in On True Religion : "Religion

4212-400: The Church, since Arius's theology received widespread sympathy (or at least was not considered to be overly controversial) and could not be dismissed outright as individual heresy. Arianism had several different variants, including Eunomianism and Homoian Arianism . Homoian Arianism is associated with Acacius and Eudoxius . Homoian Arianism avoided the use of the word ousia to describe

4320-454: The Council and probably originated from the baptismal creed of Constantinople. The council also condemned Apollinarism , the teaching that there was no human mind or soul in Christ. It also granted Constantinople honorary precedence over all churches save Rome. The council did not include Western bishops or Roman legates, but it was later accepted as ecumenical in the West. Theodosius II called

4428-509: The Council of Nicaea been the head of the Arian party, who also was made the bishop of Constantinople. Constantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene Creed, especially St Athanasius of Alexandria , who fled to Rome. In 355 Constantius became the sole Roman emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy toward the western provinces, frequently using force to push through his creed, even exiling Pope Liberius and installing Antipope Felix II . The Third Council of Sirmium in 357

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4536-482: The Emperor's favor, and when Constantine, who had been a catechumen much of his adult life, accepted baptism on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia. The First Council of Nicaea did not end the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the homoousios , the central term of the Nicene Creed, as it had been used by Paul of Samosata , who had advocated a monarchianist Christology . Both

4644-513: The Empire, though Arianism had by then spread to the Germanic tribes, among whom it gradually disappeared after the conversion of the Franks to Christianity in 496. In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople . Athanasius ( Apol. Const. 4 ) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans . Little else is known, though there

4752-515: The Father and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit all being uncreated. According to the teaching of Arius, the preexistent Logos and thus the incarnate Jesus Christ was a begotten being; only the Son was directly begotten by God the Father, before ages, but was of a distinct, though similar, essence or substance from the Creator. His opponents argued that this would make Jesus less than God and that this

4860-519: The Father is a deity and is divine and the Son of God is not a deity but divine (I, the LORD, am Deity alone.) God the Father sent Jesus to earth for salvation of mankind. Ousia is essence or being, in Eastern Christianity , and is the aspect of God that is completely incomprehensible to mankind and human perception. It is all that subsists by itself and which has not its being in another, God

4968-407: The Father, but nonetheless Jesus began to exist outside time. Arius' trinitarian theology, later given an extreme form by Aetius and his disciple Eunomius and called anomoean ('dissimilar'), asserts a total dissimilarity between the Son and the Father. Arianism holds that the Son is distinct from the Father and therefore subordinate to him. The term Arian is derived from the name Arius; it

5076-436: The Father, ("unbegotten" God; Almighty God) always existing and who is the only true God. The Son of God, Jesus Christ, ("only-begotten god" ), was begotten before time began. The Holy Spirit is the illuminating and sanctifying power of God. 1 Corinthians 8:5–6 was cited as proof text : Indeed, even though there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth—as in fact there are many gods and many lords/masters—yet for us there

5184-530: The First Council of Constantinople of 381 was seen by all later councils as the touchstone of orthodoxy on the doctrine of the Trinity . The Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches accept all seven of these councils as legitimate ecumenical councils . The Non-Chalcedonian Oriental Orthodox Churches accept only the first three, while the Non-Ephesian Church of the East accepts only the first two. There

5292-613: The Goths to Arianism was strengthened by later events; the conversion of Goths led to a widespread diffusion of Arianism among other Germanic tribes as well ( Vandals , Langobards , Svevi , and Burgundians ). When the Germanic peoples entered the provinces of the Western Roman Empire and began founding their own kingdoms there, most of them were Arian Christians. The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of Western Europe. In contrast, among

5400-507: The Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, which is neither God the Father nor the Lord Jesus Christ: I, Ulfila, bishop and confessor, have always so believed, and in this, the one true faith, I make the journey to my Lord; I believe in only one God the Father, the unbegotten and invisible, and in his only-begotten Son, our Lord/Master and God, the designer and maker of all creation, having none other like him. Therefore, there

5508-537: The India. It is a record of the accepted teachings of each of thousands of gurus , who others equate to prophets, and has no founder, no authority or command, but recommendations. The term most equivalent to orthodoxy at best has the meaning of "commonly accepted" traditions rather than the usual meaning of "conforming to a doctrine", for example, what people of middle eastern faiths attempt to equate as doctrine in Hindu philosophies

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5616-630: The Nicaean Creed—Arius himself, the deacon Euzoios, and the Libyan bishops Theonas of Marmarica and Secundus of Ptolemais —and also the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in condemnation of Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea . The emperor also ordered all copies of the Thalia , the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be burned . However, there is no evidence that his son and ultimate successor, Constantius II , who

5724-558: The Nicene terminology and preferred the term homoiousios (alike in substance) to the Nicene homoousios , while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and co-eternality of the persons of the Trinity. Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called "Semi-Arians" by their opponents. The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius's teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described

5832-628: The Second Council of Constantinople was a prolonged controversy over the treatment of three subjects, all considered sympathetic to Nestorianism, the heresy that there are two separate persons in the Incarnation of Christ. Emperor Justinian condemned the Three Chapters, hoping to appeal to miaphysite Christians with his anti-Nestorian zeal. Monophysites believe that in the Incarnate Christ there

5940-420: The Son as being like ( homoios ) the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike ( anhomoios ) the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third. Epiphanius of Salamis labeled the party of Basil of Ancyra in 358 " Semi-Arianism ". This is considered unfair by Kelly who states that some members of

6048-456: The Son) was "same in being" or "same in essence" with God the Father. Arius stated: "If the Father begat the Son, then he who was begotten had a beginning in existence, and from this it follows there was a time when the Son was not." The ecumenical First Council of Nicaea of 325 declared Arianism to be a heresy. According to Everett Ferguson , "The great majority of Christians had no clear views about

6156-566: The co-reigns of Gratian and Theodosius that Arianism was effectively wiped out among the ruling class and elite of the Eastern Empire. Valens died in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 and was succeeded by Theodosius I , who adhered to the Nicene Creed. This allowed for settling the dispute. Theodosius's wife St Flacilla was instrumental in his campaign to end Arianism. Two days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, 24 November 380, he expelled

6264-420: The commentaries such as the Visuddhimagga . Hence, the Theravada school came to be considered the most orthodox of all Buddhist schools, as it is known to be highly conservative especially within the discipline and practice of the Vinaya . In classical Christian use, the term orthodox refers to the set of doctrines which were believed by the early Christians . A series of ecumenical councils were held over

6372-558: The context of religion, the term orthodoxy is often used to refer to any commonly held belief or set of beliefs in some field, in particular when these tenets - possibly referred to as " dogmas " - are being challenged. In this sense, the term "orthodox" can have a mildly pejorative connotation. Among various "orthodoxies" in distinctive fields, the most commonly used terms include: The terms orthodox and orthodoxy are also used more broadly by English-speakers to refer to things other than ideas and beliefs. A new and unusual way of solving

6480-429: The controversy continued, with various separate groups espousing Arian sympathies in one way or another. In 359, a double council of Eastern and Western bishops affirmed a formula stating that the Father and the Son were similar in accord with the scriptures, the crowning victory for Arianism. The opponents of Arianism rallied, and the First Council of Constantinople in 381 marked the final victory of Nicene orthodoxy within

6588-441: The council to settle the christological controversy surrounding Nestorianism . Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, opposed use of the term Theotokos (Greek: Ἡ Θεοτόκος, "God-Bearer"). This term had long been used by orthodox writers, and it was gaining popularity along with devotion to Mary as Mother of God. He reportedly taught that there were two separate persons in the incarnate Christ, though whether he actually taught this

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6696-466: The council's text but with the verbs expressing belief in the singular: Πιστεύω (I believe) instead of Πιστεύομεν (We believe). The Catholic Church 's Latin Church and its liturgies also use the singular and, except in Greek , adds two phrases, Deum de Deo (God from God) and Filioque (and the Son). The form used by the Armenian Apostolic Church , which is part of Oriental Orthodoxy , has many more additions. This fuller creed may have existed before

6804-450: The council, as did his successor, Pope Pelagius I . The council was not immediately recognized as ecumenical in the West, and Milan and Aquileia even broke off communion with Rome over this issue. The schism was not repaired until the late 6th century for Milan and the late 7th century for Aquileia. Emperor Justinian's policy failed to reconcile the Monophysites. Third Council of Constantinople (680–681): repudiated monothelitism ,

6912-407: The creation ex nihilo of Jesus from God. Arians do not believe in the traditional doctrine of the Trinity . The letter of the Arian bishop Auxentius of Durostorum regarding the Arian missionary Ulfilas gives a picture of Arian beliefs. The Arian Ulfilas, who was ordained a bishop by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia and returned to his people to work as a missionary, believed: God,

7020-412: The deaths of both Arius and Constantine. Though Arianism had spread, Athanasius and other Nicene Christian church leaders crusaded against Arian theology, and Arius was anathemised and condemned as a heretic once more at the ecumenical First Council of Constantinople of 381 (attended by 150 bishops). The Roman Emperors Constantius II (337–361) and Valens (364–378) were Arians or Semi-Arians , as

7128-691: The decision of the previous council. Orthodoxy Orthodoxy (from Greek : ὀρθοδοξία , orthodoxía , 'righteous/correct opinion') is adherence to correct or accepted creeds , especially in religion . Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity , but different Churches accept different creeds and councils. Such differences of opinion have developed for numerous reasons, including language and cultural barriers. Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy are sometimes referred to simply as "Orthodoxy". In some English-speaking countries, Jews who adhere to all

7236-460: The decisions of Chalcedon. The pope assented and condemned the Three Chapters, but protests in the West caused him to retract his condemnation. The emperor called the Second Council of Constantinople to resolve the controversy. The council, attended mostly by Eastern bishops, condemned the Three Chapters and, indirectly, the Pope Vigilius. It also affirmed Constantinople's intention to remain in communion with Rome. Vigilius declared his submission to

7344-447: The eastern Mediterranean. By 325, the controversy had become significant enough that the Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the First Council of Nicaea , which condemned Arius's doctrine and formulated the original Nicene Creed of 325 . The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is Homoousios ( Ancient Greek : ὁμοούσιος ), or Consubstantiality , meaning "of

7452-441: The faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith), or be handed over for punishment for not doing so. Although much of the church hierarchy in the East had opposed the Nicene Creed in the decades leading up to Theodosius's accession, he managed to achieve unity on the basis of the Nicene Creed. In 381, at the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted

7560-475: The faithful minister of Christ; not equal, but subject and obedient in all things to the Son. And I believe the Son to be subject and obedient in all things to God the Father. A letter from Arius (c. 250–336) to the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341) states the core beliefs of the Arians: Some of them say that the Son is an eructation, others that he is a production, others that he is also unbegotten. These are impieties to which we cannot listen, even though

7668-409: The gradual canonisation of written scriptures and supra-national philosophies in the increasingly monotheistic Abrahamic Near East, but literacy traditions in South Asia and in East Asia did not prevent the growth of religious and political pluralism . Medieval Europe and the post-colonial West saw a turn - subsequently spreading elsewhere - to coercive interest in the belief -systems of

7776-463: The group were virtually orthodox from the start but disliked the adjective homoousios while others had moved in that direction after the out-and-out Arians had come into the open. The debates among these groups resulted in numerous synods, among them the Council of Serdica in 343, the Fourth Council of Sirmium in 358 and the double Council of Rimini and Seleucia in 359, and no fewer than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360, leading

7884-444: The heretics threaten us with a thousand deaths. But we say and believe and have taught, and do teach, that the Son is not unbegotten, nor in any way part of the unbegotten; and that he does not derive his subsistence from any matter; but that by his own will and counsel he has subsisted before time and before ages as perfect as God, only begotten and unchangeable, and that before he was begotten, or created, or purposed, or established, he

7992-446: The individual ( McCarthyism exemplifies a peak in this trend) and in their regulation or "correction" via social control - in the interests of ideological purity and state homogeneity. Orthodoxy is opposed to heterodoxy ('other teaching') or heresy . People who deviate from orthodoxy by professing a doctrine considered to be false are called heretics, while those who, perhaps without professing heretical beliefs, break from

8100-457: The jurisdiction exercised by Rome) and the prerogatives of the churches in Antioch and the other provinces and approved the custom by which Jerusalem was honoured, but without the metropolitan dignity. The Council was opposed by the Arians , and Constantine tried to reconcile Arius , after whom Arianism is named, with the Church. Even when Arius died in 336, one year before the death of Constantine,

8208-480: The legitimacy of their clergy by apostolic succession back to this period and beyond, to the earlier period referred to as the Early Church . This era begins with the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325, convened by the emperor Constantine I following his victory over Licinius and consolidation of his reign over the Roman Empire. Nicaea I enunciated the Nicene Creed that in its original form and as modified by

8316-583: The man and his teaching, including the term homoousios , had been condemned by the Synods of Antioch in 269. Hence, after Constantine's death in 337, open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son Constantius II , who had become emperor of the eastern part of the Roman Empire , actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene Creed. His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at

8424-494: The nature of the Trinity and they did not understand what was at stake in the issues that surrounded it." Arianism is also used to refer to other nontrinitarian theological systems of the 4th century, which regarded Jesus Christ —the Son of God, the Logos —as either a begotten creature of a similar or different substance to that of the Father, but not identical (as Homoiousian and Anomoeanism ) or as neither uncreated nor created in

8532-497: The only authentic form of Judaism and rejecting all non-Orthodox interpretations as illegitimate. Kemetic Orthodoxy is a denomination of Kemetism , a reform reconstruction of Egyptian polytheism for modern followers. It claims to derive a spiritual lineage from the Ancient Egyptian religion . There are organizations of Slavic Native Faith (Rodnovery) which characterize the religion as Orthodoxy and by other terms. Outside

8640-681: The pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus to comment sarcastically: "The highways were covered with galloping bishops." None of these attempts were acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy; writing about the latter councils, Saint Jerome remarked that the world "awoke with a groan to find itself Arian." After Constantius's death in 361, his successor Julian , a devotee of Rome's pagan gods , declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return; this resulted in further increasing dissension among Nicene Christians. The emperor Valens , however, revived Constantius's policy and supported

8748-451: The perceived main body of believers are called schismatics . The term employed sometimes depends on the aspect most in view: if one is addressing corporate unity, the emphasis may be on schism; if one is addressing doctrinal coherence, the emphasis may be on heresy. A deviation lighter than heresy is commonly called error, in the sense of not being grave enough to cause total estrangement, while yet seriously affecting communion. Sometimes error

8856-439: The proto-orthodox won the previous disputes, due to the more accurate defining of orthodoxy , they were vanquished with their own weapons, ultimately being declared heretics, not because they would have fought against ideas regarded as theologically correct, but because their positions lacked the accuracy and refinement needed by the fusion of several contradictory theses accepted at the same time by later orthodox theologians. Of

8964-440: The questions posed by Arians. Since Arius was not a bishop, he was not allowed to sit on the council, and it was Eusebius of Nicomedia who spoke for him and the position he represented. All the bishops who were there were in agreement with the major theological points of the proto-orthodoxy , since at that time all other forms of Christianity "had by this time already been displaced, suppressed, reformed, or destroyed". Although

9072-463: The regional First Synod of Tyre in 335 (attended by 310 bishops), to address various charges mounted against Athanasius by his detractors, such as "murder, illegal taxation, sorcery, and treason", following his refusal to readmit Arius into fellowship. Athanasius was exiled to Trier (in modern Germany ) following his conviction at Tyre of conspiracy, and Arius was, effectively, exonerated. Athanasius eventually returned to Alexandria in 346, after

9180-495: The relation of Father to Son, and described these as "like" each other. Hanson lists twelve creeds that reflect the Homoian faith: In 321, Arius was denounced by a synod at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria—counterparts to modern universities or seminaries—their theological views spread, especially in

9288-491: The roughly 300 bishops in attendance at the Council of Nicaea , two bishops did not sign the Nicene Creed that condemned Arianism. Constantine the Great also ordered a penalty of death for those who refused to surrender the Arian writings: In addition, if any writing composed by Arius should be found, it should be handed over to the flames, so that not only will the wickedness of his teaching be obliterated, but nothing will be left even to remind anyone of him. And I hereby make

9396-542: The same substance" or "of one being" (the Athanasian Creed is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity). The focus of the Council of Nicaea was the nature of the Son of God and his precise relationship to God the Father (see Paul of Samosata and the Synods of Antioch ). Arius taught that Jesus Christ was divine/holy and was sent to earth for the salvation of mankind but that Jesus Christ

9504-477: The sense other beings are created (as in semi-Arianism ). Some early Christians that were counted among Orthodoxy denied the eternal generation of the Son, seeing the Son as being begotten in time. These include Tertullian and Justin Martyr . Tertullian is considered a pre-Arian. Among the other church fathers, Origen was accused of Arianism for using terms like "second God", and Patriarch Dionysius of Alexandria

9612-660: The subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic tribes across the Danube , a mission favored for political reasons by the Emperor Constantius II . The Homoians in the Danubian provinces played a major role in the conversion of the Goths to Arianism . Ulfilas's translation of the Bible into Gothic language and his initial success in converting

9720-425: The theologians of the 19th century it was already obvious that in fact Arius and Alexander/Athanasius did not have much to quarrel about, the difference between their views was very small, and that the end of the fight was by no means clear during their quarrel, both Arius and Athanasius suffering a great deal for their own views. Arius was the father of Homoiousianism and Alexander the father of Homoousianism , which

9828-467: The theological orthodoxy of the time, one trinitarian and the other also a derivative of trinitarian orthodoxy, and each of them attempted to solve its respective theological dilemmas. Homoousianism was formally affirmed by the first two ecumenical councils ; since then, Arianism has been condemned as "the heresy or sect of Arius". Trinitarian (Homoousian) doctrines were vigorously upheld by Patriarch Athanasius of Alexandria , who insisted that Jesus (God

9936-616: The traditions and commandments as legislated in the Torah are often called Orthodox Jews . Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "Orthodox Islam". The historical Buddha was known to denounce mere attachment to scriptures or dogmatic principles, as it was mentioned in the Kalama Sutta . Moreover, the Theravada school of Buddhism follows strict adherence to the Pāli Canon ( tripiṭaka ) and

10044-593: The various challenges of modernity and secularization . Theologically , it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah , both Written and Oral , as literally revealed by God on biblical Mount Sinai and faithfully transmitted ever since. The movement advocates a strict observance of halakha (Jewish Law), which is to be interpreted only according to received methods due to its divine character. Orthodoxy considers halakha as eternal and beyond historical influence, being applied differently to changing circumstances but basically unchangeable in itself. Orthodox Judaism

10152-490: The ātiska being those who accept the epistemic authority of the Vedas . Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "Orthodox Islam". Other scholars of Islam, such as John Burton believe that there is no such thing as "Orthodox Islam". Orthodox Judaism is a collective term for the traditionalist branches of Judaism , which seek to fully maintain the received Jewish beliefs and observances and which coalesced in opposition to

10260-553: Was a Semi-Arian Christian, was exiled. Although he was committed to maintaining what the Great Church had defined at Nicaea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient toward those condemned and exiled at the council. First, he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a protégé of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius's rehabilitation. At

10368-489: Was a theological method that gradually developed during the era of Lutheran orthodoxy. Theologians used the neo-Aristotelian form of presentation, already popular in academia, in their writings and lectures. They defined the Lutheran faith and defended it against the polemics of opposing parties. Reformed orthodoxy or Calvinist orthodoxy was an era in the history of Calvinism in the 16th to 18th centuries. Calvinist orthodoxy

10476-424: Was championed by Athanasius. For those theologians it was clear that Arius, Alexander and Athanasius were far from a true doctrine of Trinity, which developed later, historically speaking. Guido M. Berndt and Roland Steinacher state clearly that the beliefs of Arius were acceptable ("not especially unusual") to a huge number of orthodox clergy; this is the reason why such a major conflict was able to develop inside

10584-765: Was denounced at Rome for saying that Son is a work and creature of God. However, the Subordinationism of Origen is not identical to Arianism, and it has been generally viewed as closer to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan view. Controversy over Arianism arose in the late 3rd century and persisted throughout most of the 4th century. It involved most church members—from simple believers, priests, and monks to bishops, emperors, and members of Rome's imperial family. Two Roman emperors, Constantius II and Valens , became Arians or Semi-Arians , as did prominent Gothic , Vandal , and Lombard warlords both before and after

10692-505: Was heretical. Much of the distinction between the differing factions was over the phrasing that Christ expressed in the New Testament to express submission to God the Father. The theological term for this submission is kenosis . This ecumenical council declared that Jesus Christ was true God, co-eternal and consubstantial (i.e., of the same substance) with God the Father. Constantine is believed to have exiled those who refused to accept

10800-403: Was in note of the fact that both Catholic and Orthodox were in use as ecclesiastical adjectives as early as the 2nd and 4th centuries respectively. Much earlier, the earliest Oriental Orthodox Churches and Chalcedonian Christianity separated in two after the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451), because of several Christological differences. Since then, Oriental Orthodox Churches are maintaining

10908-452: Was later overturned by the Council of Chalcedon and labeled "Latrocinium" (i.e., "Robber Council"). This council condemned certain writings and authors which defended the christology of Nestorius. This move was instigated by Emperor Justinian in an effort to conciliate the monophysite Christians, it was opposed in the West, and the Popes' acceptance of the council caused a major schism. Prior to

11016-408: Was not equal to God the Father (infinite, primordial origin) in rank and that God the Father and the Son of God were not equal to the Holy Spirit. Under Arianism, Christ was instead not consubstantial with God the Father since both the Father and the Son under Arius were made of "like" essence or being (see homoiousia ) but not of the same essence or being (see homoousia ). In the Arian view, God

11124-411: Was not what the followers of Arius' teachings called themselves, but rather a term used by outsiders . The nature of Arius's and his supporters' teachings were opposed to the theological doctrines held by Homoousian Christians regarding the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ. There was a controversy between two interpretations of Jesus's divinity (Homoousianism and Arianism) based upon

11232-406: Was not. For he was not unbegotten. We are persecuted because we say that the Son has a beginning but that God is without beginning. Principally, the dispute between Trinitarianism and Arianism was about: For Constantine, these were minor theological points that stood in the way of uniting the Empire, but for the theologians, it was of huge importance; for them, it was a matter of salvation. For

11340-585: Was paralleled by similar eras in Lutheranism and tridentine Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation . Calvinist scholasticism or Reformed scholasticism was a theological method that gradually developed during the era of Calvinist Orthodoxy. Orthodoxy does not exist in Hinduism , as the word Hindu itself collectively refers to the various beliefs of people who lived beyond the Sindhu river (Indus river) of

11448-540: Was the first King of Italy , Odoacer (433?–493), and the Lombards were also Arians or Semi-Arians until the 7th century. The ruling elite of Visigothic Spain was Arian until 589. Many Goths adopted Arian beliefs upon their conversion to Christianity. The Vandals actively spread Arianism in North Africa. Little of Arius's own work survives except in quotations selected for polemical purposes by his opponents, and there

11556-647: Was the high point of Arianism. The Seventh Arian Confession (Second Sirmium Confession) held that both homoousios (of one substance) and homoiousios (of similar substance) were unbiblical and that the Father is greater than the Son. (This confession was later known as the Blasphemy of Sirmium.) But since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in Latin substantia , but in Greek ousia , that is, to make it understood more exactly, as to 'coessential,' or what

11664-460: Was used to argue that Jesus is dependent for his existence since Jesus exists only because God wants him to be. Arianism taught that the Logos was a divine being begotten by God the Father before the creation of the world, made him a medium through whom everything else was created, and that the Son of God is subordinate to God the Father. The Logos is an inner attribute of God that is wisdom, while Jesus

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