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64-430: Léopold Sédar Senghor ( / s ɒ ŋ ˈ ɡ ɔːr / ; French: [sɑ̃ɡɔʁ] ; 9 October 1906 – 20 December 2001) was a Senegalese politician, cultural theorist and poet who served as the first president of Senegal from 1960 to 1980. Ideologically an African socialist , Senghor was one of the major theoreticians of Négritude . He was a proponent of African culture , black identity, and African empowerment within

128-530: A constitutional referendum reduced the presidential term back to five years. In July 2008, during Wade's second term, the National Assembly approved a constitutional amendment increasing the length of the presidential term back to seven years, as it was prior to the adoption of the 2001 constitution. This extension did not apply to Abdoulaye Wade 's 2007–2012 term. In 2016, during Macky Sall 's first term, per another constitutional referendum ,

192-705: A world constitution . As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth . Senghor was elected a member of the Académie française on 2 June 1983, at the 16th seat where he succeeded Antoine de Lévis Mirepoix . He was the first African to sit at the Académie. The entrance ceremony in his honour took place on 29 March 1984, in presence of French President François Mitterrand . This

256-423: A 5-year term, with a limit of two consecutive terms. The following is a list of presidents of Senegal, since the country gained independence from France in 1960. The Senegalese Constitution provides the following oath for the president which must be taken before they enter into office: "I swear, before God and the people of Senegal, to faithfully execute the office of president of the republic of Senegal, to keep

320-634: A Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic of Spain. Members of the order at the rank of Knight and above enjoy personal nobility and have the privilege of adding a golden heraldic mantle to their coats of arms. Those at the rank of the Collar also receive the official style "His or Her Most Excellent Lord". That same year, Senghor received an honoris causa from the University of Salamanca . In 1983, he

384-569: A coup and imprisoning him for 12 years. Senghor established an authoritarian one-party state in Senegal where all rival political parties were prohibited. Senghor was the founder of the Senegalese Democratic Bloc party in 1948. He was the first African elected as a member of the Académie française and won the 1985 International Nonino Prize in Italy. Senghor is regarded by many as one of

448-666: A federal model where each territory had its "negro-African personality" along with French experience and resources. In 1947, Senghor left the African Division of the French Section of the Workers International (SFIO), which had given enormous financial support to the social movement. With Mamadou Dia , he founded the Bloc démocratique sénégalais (1948). They won the legislative elections of 1951, and Guèye lost his seat. Senghor

512-787: A figure from whom Léopold Sédar Senghor has been reported to trace descent, was a c.  13th-century Serer noble. At the age of eight, Senghor began his studies in Senegal in the Ngasobil boarding school of the Fathers of the Holy Spirit. In 1922, he entered a seminary in Dakar. After being told that religious life was not for him, he attended a secular institution. By then, he was already passionate about French literature. He won distinctions in French, Latin, Greek and Algebra. With his Baccalaureate completed, he

576-547: A guiding principle for his political thought in his career as a statesman. In 1939, Senghor was enlisted in the 3rd Colonial Infantry Regiment of the French army with the rank of private ( 2 Classe ) despite his higher education. A year later in June 1940, the invading Germans took him prisoner in la Charité-sur-Loire or Villabon . He was interned in a succession of camps, and finally at Front Stalag 230, in Poitiers . Front Stalag 230

640-493: A lack of acknowledgement for what the politician had been in his life. The analogy was made with the Senegalese Tirailleurs who, after having contributed to the liberation of France, had to wait more than forty years to receive an equal pension (in terms of buying power) to their French counterparts. The scholar Érik Orsenna wrote in the newspaper Le Monde an editorial entitled "J'ai honte" (I am ashamed). Although

704-428: A lesson appropriate for the second, third, or even fourth years of specialized courses at the university level. One reason is that the agrégés should be able to teach in preparatory classes , very similar in nature to grammar schools , or in universities. Points obtained at the admissibility and admission phases are ultimately totaled and used to rank candidates in accordance with the yearly quota: for instance, for

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768-414: A poet and a politician even throughout his busy careers as both, living by his philosophy of achieving equilibrium between competing forces. Whether it was France and Africa, poetics and politics, or other disparate parts of his identity, Senghor balanced the two. Literarily, Senghor's influence on political thought and poetic form are wide-reaching even through to our modern day. Senghor's poetry endures as

832-429: A quota of 60 positions, the first 60 candidates will pass the exam and are pronounced admis by the jury. The agrégation is therefore used as an unofficial national ranking system for students, giving a fair comparison between candidates of different universities. That is especially true in the humanities and social sciences, for which the agrégation is highly selective and supposedly demonstrates erudition of

896-517: A socialist, Senghor avoided the Marxist and anti-Western ideology that had become popular in post-colonial Africa, favouring the maintenance of close ties with France and the Western world. Senghor's tenure as president was characterised by the development of African socialism , which was created as an indigenous alternative to Marxism , drawing heavily from the négritude philosophy. In developing this, he

960-505: A type of "French Commonwealth", while retaining a degree of French involvement: In Africa, when children have grown up, they leave their parents' hut, and build a hut of their own by its side. Believe me, we don't want to leave the French compound. We have grown up in it, and it is good to be alive in it. We simply want to build our own huts. Since federalism was not favoured by the African countries, he decided to form, along with Modibo Keita ,

1024-405: A written part ( admissibility ), then an oral part ( admission ). The jury is composed of university professors. The admissibility phase is composed of numerous writing tests, which consist of essays and analyses of documents. Each test takes up to 7 hours in duration, and the admissibility phase usually runs over an entire week. Points obtained at each test are totaled, and candidates that meet

1088-424: Is "Il s'agit, en réalité, d'un simple décalage—dans le temps et dans l'espace", meaning that between Black Africans and African Americans there exists an inconsistency, both temporally and spatially. The time element points to the advancing or delaying of a schedule or agenda, while the space aspect designates the displacing and shifting of an object. The term points to "a bias that refuses to pass over when one crosses

1152-496: Is a significant overlap. In addition to the vast majority of agrégés teaching in sixth-form colleges and secondary schools, some agrégés teach in the preparatory classes for the grandes écoles , or at the university level, through a faculty position known as PRAG and focused on teaching, which does not require to undertake scientific research , as other university academics do. A few positions that include research activities, called agrégé préparateur , or AGPR, exist in

1216-564: Is typically open only to holders of a five-year university diploma (master's degree) or above. There is also an internal agrégation for professeurs certifiés . The examination requires usually more than a year of preparation. Students of the écoles normales supérieures as well as graduate students who have just completed their master's degree often dedicate an entire year of their curriculum to prepare this examination, enrolling into specific graduate programs. Candidates are called agrégatifs . The competitive exam generally consists first of

1280-507: The écoles normales supérieures . Although both Agrégations are labeled as Agrégation of economics, the Agrégation of economics and social sciences is more oriented towards political economy whereas the Agrégation of economics and management is more oriented towards business economics. In some disciplines of higher education such as law , legal history , political science , economics , management , there exists an agrégation for

1344-654: The French Constitution of 1946 , Senghor pushed for the extension of French citizenship to all French territories. Four Senegalese communes had citizenship since 1916 – Senghor argued that this should be extended to the rest of France's territory. Senghor argued for a federal model whereby each African territory would govern its own internal affairs, and this federation would be part of a larger French confederation that run foreign affairs, defence and development policies. Senghor opposed indigenous nationalism, arguing that African territories would develop more successfully within

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1408-635: The Mali Federation with former French Sudan (present-day Mali ). Senghor was president of the Federal Assembly until it failed in 1960. Afterwards, Senghor became the first President of the Republic of Senegal, elected on 5 September 1960. He is the author of the Senegalese national anthem . The prime minister, Mamadou Dia , was in charge of executing Senegal's long-term development plan, while Senghor

1472-556: The Serer language , meaning "one that shall not be humiliated" or "the one you cannot humiliate". His surname Senghor is a combination of the Serer words Sène (a Serer surname and the name of the Supreme Deity in Serer religion called Rog Sene ) and gor or ghor , the etymology of which is kor in the Serer language , meaning male or man. Tukura Badiar Senghor, the prince of Sine and

1536-475: The "record of an individual sensibility at a particular moment in history," capturing the spirit of the Négritude movement at its peak, but also marks a definitive place in literary history. Senghor's thoughts were exceedingly radical for this time, arguing that Africans could only progress if they developed a culture distinct and separate from the colonial powers that oppressed them, pushing against popular thought at

1600-450: The African diaspora who had come to study in the colonial capital, coined the term and conceived the notion of " négritude ", which was a response to the racism still prevalent in France. It turned the racial slur nègre into a positively connoted celebration of African culture and character. The idea of négritude informed not only Senghor's cultural criticism and literary work, but also became

1664-581: The Africanist community." Michael Mbabuike , president of the New York African Studies Association (NYASA), said that the award also honours those who have worked "to make the world a better place for mankind." The airport of Dakar was renamed Aéroport International Léopold Sédar Senghor in 1996, on his 90th birthday. The Passerelle Solférino in Paris was renamed after him in 2006, on

1728-814: The Grand Cross of the National Order of the Lion . His war exploits earned him the Reconnaissance Franco-alliée Medal of 1939–1945 and the Combattant Cross of 1939–1945. He received honorary doctorates from thirty-seven universities. Senghor received the Commemorative Medal of the 2500th Anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire on 14 October 1971. On 13 November 1978, he was created

1792-473: The President after he had participated in the sermon of Tabaski , but the gun did not fire . Lô was sentenced to death for treason and executed on 15 June 1967, even though it remained unclear if he had actually wanted to kill Senghor. Following an announcement at the beginning of December 1980, Senghor resigned his position at the end of the year, before the end of his fifth term. Abdou Diouf replaced him as

1856-625: The Republic ( French : Palais de la République ) is the presidential residence, located in Dakar in the Plateau district. After having been the official residence of the Governor-General of French West Africa . The construction of the palace in its first state was ordered in 1902 by Gaston Doumergue , Minister of the Colonies , to house in the capital the Governor General of French West Africa who

1920-569: The better. Once the war was over, Senghor was selected as Dean of the Linguistics Department with the École nationale de la France d'Outre-Mer , a position he would hold until Senegal's independence in 1960. While travelling on a research trip for his poetry, he met the local socialist leader, Lamine Guèye , who suggested that Senghor run for election as a member of the Assemblée nationale française . Senghor accepted and became député for

1984-490: The candidate. In France, professeurs agrégés are distinguished from professeurs certifiés , recruited through the CAPES , the other main competitive exam in the French education system. The agrégés receives a higher salary and are usually endorsed with a smaller teaching service. While agrégés are expected to teach in sixth-form colleges ( lycées ) and universities and the certifiés in secondary schools ( collèges ), there

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2048-581: The centenary of his birth. His poetry was widely acclaimed, and in 1978 he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca . His poem "A l'appel de la race de Saba", published in 1936, was inspired by the entry of Italian troops in Addis Ababa. In 1948, Senghor compiled and edited a volume of Francophone poetry called Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache for which Jean-Paul Sartre wrote an introduction, entitled "Orphée Noir" (Black Orpheus). For his epitaph

2112-422: The committee. For the remaining lesson, when it exists, the candidate has a full 24 hours to prepare for the examination, and may use several libraries as well as a team of "helpers" (usually doctoral candidates or fellow candidates, but never full professors). Some anticonformist sociologists like Pierre Bourdieu have argued that this exam measures a candidate's social connections as much their ability to present

2176-580: The creation of la Francophonie and was elected vice-president of the High Council of the Francophonie. In 1982, he was one of the founders of the Association France and developing countries whose objectives were to bring attention to the problems of developing countries, in the wake of the changes affecting the latter. He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting

2240-456: The entrance exam, Senghor prepared for his grammar Agrégation . He was granted his agrégation in 1935 at his second attempt. Senghor graduated from the University of Paris , where he received the Agrégation in French Grammar. Subsequently, he was designated professor at the universities of Tours and Paris, where he taught during the period 1935–45. Senghor started his teaching years at

2304-464: The framework of French-African ties. He advocated for the extension of full civil and political rights for France's African territories while arguing that French Africans would be better off within a federal French structure than as independent nation-states. Senghor became the first president of independent Senegal . He fell out with his long-standing associate Mamadou Dia , who was the prime minister of Senegal , arresting him on suspicion of fomenting

2368-417: The head of the country. Under Senghor's presidency, Senegal adopted a multi-party system (limited to three: socialist , communist and liberal ). He created a performing education system. Despite the end of official colonialism, the value of Senegalese currency continued to be fixed by France, the language of learning remained French, and Senghor ruled the country with French political advisors. He supported

2432-543: The importance of dialogue and exchange among different cultures (e.g., European, African, Arab, etc.). A related concept later developed in Mobutu 's Zaire is that of authenticité or Authenticity. In colloquial French, the term décalage is used to describe jetlag, lag or a general discrepancy between two things. However, Senghor uses the term to describe the unevenness in the African Diaspora. The complete phrase he uses

2496-530: The king of Sine . Gnilane Ndiémé Bakhoum (1861–1948), Senghor's mother, the third wife of his father, a Muslim with Fula origin who belonged to the Tabor tribe, was born near Djilor to a Christian family. She gave birth to six children, including two sons. Senghor's birth certificate states that he was born on 9 October 1906; however, there is a discrepancy with his certificate of baptism, which states it occurred on 9 August 1906. His Serer middle name Sédar comes from

2560-399: The length of the presidential term was decreased back to five years. The amendments were adopted in constitutional law № 2016-10. As of 2021, there is a two-term limit for the president in the Constitution of Senegal . Abdoulaye Wade was controversially allowed to run for president in 2012 following the 2008 constitutional amendment, but lost re-election to Macky Sall. The Palace of

2624-579: The lycée René-Descartes in Tours ; he also taught at the lycée Marcelin-Berthelot in Saint-Maur-des-Fosses near Paris. He also studied linguistics taught by Lilias Homburger at the École pratique des hautes études . He studied with prominent social scientists such as Marcel Cohen , Marcel Mauss and Paul Rivet (director of the Institut d'ethnologie de Paris ). Senghor, along with other intellectuals of

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2688-462: The minister of foreign affairs, in charge of the Francophonie. Jacques Chirac (who said, upon hearing of Senghor's death: "Poetry has lost one of its masters, Senegal a statesman, Africa a visionary and France a friend") and Lionel Jospin , respectively president of the French Republic and the prime minister , did not attend. Their failure to attend Senghor's funeral made waves as it was deemed

2752-486: The most important African intellectuals of the 20th century. Léopold Sédar Senghor was born on 9 October 1906 in the city of Joal , some 110 kilometres south of Dakar , the capital of Senegal. His father, Basile Diogoye Senghor (pronounced: Basile Jogoy Senghor), was a wealthy peanut merchant belonging to the bourgeois Serer people . Basile Senghor was said to be a man of great means and owned thousands of cattle and vast lands, some of which were given to him by his cousin

2816-409: The opportunity to verify that the candidates possess the appropriate speaking skills and master the main exercises and components of their discipline; for example, in the Agrégation of Classics (French, Greek, Latin), candidates have to translate and comment on classical texts and texts from French literature. These lessons extend well above the secondary education level; the candidate may have to present

2880-520: The original. In 1942, he was released for medical reasons. He resumed his teaching career while remaining involved in the resistance during the Nazi occupation. Senghor advocated for African integration within the French Empire, arguing that independence for small, weak territories would lead to the perpetuation of oppression, whereas African empowerment within a federal French Empire could transform it for

2944-489: The pioneering work of Leo Frobenius . Building upon historical research identifying ancient Egypt with black Africa, Senghor argued that sub-Saharan Africa and Europe are in fact part of the same cultural continuum, reaching from Egypt to classical Greece, through Rome to the European colonial powers of the modern age. Négritude was by no means—as it has in many quarters been perceived—an anti-white racism, but rather emphasised

3008-413: The professorship positions, called agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur . In this competitive exam, the candidate also has to give several lessons in front of a committee. Usually there are three lessons, spread over several months, except in economics, where there are only two lessons. The first and the last lessons have to be prepared alone, during eight hours, in a library of basic titles selected by

3072-463: The provisions of the Constitution and laws and to ensure their observance, to devote all my strength to defending constitutional institutions, to defend Senegal's territorial integrity and its independence, and [I swear] to spare no effort to realize the unity of Africa". In 1991, presidential term lengths were extended from five to seven years. In January 2001, during Abdoulaye Wade 's first term,

3136-464: The riding of Sénégal-Mauritanie, when colonies were granted the right to be represented by elected individuals. They took different positions when the train conductors on the Dakar-Niger line went on strike. Guèye voted against the strike, arguing the movement would paralyse the colony, while Senghor supported the workers, which gained him great support among Senegalese. During the negotiations to write

3200-422: The sense that they are more direct and concrete expressions of the sensation and of the stimulus, and so of the object itself with all its original qualities and power." This was a reaction against the too-strong dominance of French culture in the colonies, and against the perception that Africa did not have a culture developed enough to stand alongside that of Europe. In that respect négritude owes significantly to

3264-411: The threshold set by the yearly quota are pronounced admissible by the jury. The writing part is when most candidates are eliminated. The remaining candidates have to go through an oral part ( admission ), composed of different oral exams. In front of the jury, candidates must demonstrate their ability to prepare and give lectures on any topic within the scope of the discipline. These lectures provide

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3328-568: The time. Senghor was deeply influenced by poets from the US such as Langston Hughes. Seat number 16 of the Académie was vacant after the Senegalese poet's death. He was ultimately replaced by another former president, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing . Senghor received several honours in the course of his life. He was made Grand-Croix of the Légion d'honneur , Grand-Croix of the l' Ordre national du Mérite , commander of arts and letters. He also received academic palms and

3392-405: The water". He asks, how can we expect any sort of solidarity or intimacy from two populations that diverged over 500 years ago? President of Senegal The president of Senegal ( French : Président du Sénégal ) is the head of state of Senegal . In accordance with the constitutional reform of 2001 and since a referendum that took place on 20 March 2016 , the president is elected for

3456-462: Was a poem he had written, namely: With Aimé Césaire and Léon Damas , Senghor created the concept of Négritude , an important intellectual movement that sought to assert and valorise what they believed to be distinctive African characteristics, values, and aesthetics. One of these African characteristics that Senghor theorised was asserted when he wrote "the Negro has reactions that are more lived, in

3520-639: Was also a member of the commission responsible for drafting the Fifth Republic 's constitution, general councillor for Senegal, member of the Grand Conseil de l'Afrique Occidentale Francaise and member of the parliamentary assembly of the Council of Europe . In 1964, Senghor published the first volume of a series of five, titled Liberté . The book contains a variety of speeches, essays and prefaces. Senghor supported federalism for newly independent African states,

3584-522: Was assisted by Ousmane Tanor Dieng . On 31 December 1980, he retired in favour of his prime minister, Abdou Diouf . Politically, Senghor's stamp can also be identified today. With regards to Senegal in particular, his willful abdication of power to his successor, Abdou Diouf, led to Diouf's peaceful leave from office as well. Senegal's special relationship with France and economic legacy are more highly contested, but Senghor's impact on democracy remains nonetheless. Senghor managed to retain his identity as both

3648-605: Was awarded a scholarship to continue his studies in France. In 1928, Senghor sailed from Senegal for France, beginning, in his words, "sixteen years of wandering." Starting his post-secondary studies at the Sorbonne , he quit and went on to the Lycée Louis-le-Grand to finish his preparatory course for entrance to the École Normale Supérieure , a grande école . Henri Queffélec , Robert Verdier and Georges Pompidou were also studying at this elite institution. After failing

3712-685: Was awarded the Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize by the University of Tübingen . The Senghor French Language International University , named after him was officially opened in Alexandria in 1990. In 1994, he was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award by the African Studies Association ; however, there was controversy about whether he met the standard of contributing "a lifetime record of outstanding scholarship in African studies and service to

3776-583: Was considered a further step towards greater openness in the Académie, after the previous election of a woman, Marguerite Yourcenar . In 1993, the last and fifth book of the Liberté series was published: Liberté 5: le dialogue des cultures. Senghor's first marriage was to Ginette Éboué (1 March 1923 – 1992), daughter of Félix Éboué . They married on 9 September 1946 and divorced in 1955. They had two sons, Francis in 1947 and Guy in 1948. His second wife, Colette Hubert [fr] (20 November 1925 – 18 November 2019), who

3840-613: Was from France, became Senegal's first First Lady upon independence in 1960. Senghor had three sons between his two marriages. Senghor spent the last years of his life with his wife in Verson , near the city of Caen in Normandy, where he died on 20 December 2001. His funeral was held on 29 December 2001 in Dakar . Officials attending the ceremony included Raymond Forni , president of the Assemblée nationale and Charles Josselin , state secretary for

3904-546: Was in charge of foreign relations. The two men quickly disagreed. In December 1962, Mamadou Dia was arrested under suspicion of fomenting a coup d'état . He was held in prison for 12 years. Following this, Senghor established an authoritarian presidential regime where all rival political parties were suppressed. Senghor tightly circumscribed press freedom in Senegal and founded the state-run newspaper Le Soleil in 1970. On 22 March 1967, Senghor survived an assassination attempt. The suspect, Moustapha Lô , pointed his pistol towards

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3968-661: Was involved in the negotiations and drafting of the Fourth Republic's constitution. Re-elected deputy in 1951 as an independent overseas member, Senghor was appointed state secretary to the council's president in Edgar Faure 's government from 1 March 1955 to 1 February 1956. He became mayor of the city of Thiès , Senegal in November 1956 and then advisory minister in the Michel Debré 's government from 23 July 1959 to 19 May 1961. He

4032-677: Was reserved for colonial troops captured during the war. According to Senghor, German soldiers wanted to execute him and the others on the day they were captured, but they escaped this fate by yelling Vive la France, vive l'Afrique noire! ("Long live France, long live Black Africa!"). A French officer told the soldiers that executing the African prisoners would dishonour the Aryan race and the German Army . In total, Senghor spent two years in different prison camps, where he spent most of his time writing poems and learning enough German to read Goethe's poetry in

4096-910: Was then residing in Saint-Louis . The architect was Henri Deglane. Elected unopposed Agr%C3%A9gation in France Originating from the 18th century, the agrégation is a highly prestigious and competitive examination. The level of selectivity varies between disciplines: every year, the French Ministry of National Education determines and publishes a list of annual quotas for each discipline. There are about 300 to 400 positions open each year for mathematics , but usually fewer positions for humanities and social sciences (for example, 85 positions for philosophy were offered in 2024 ) and perhaps only one seat in some rarely taught foreign languages such as Japanese . The agrégation

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