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80-604: Semna was a fortified area established in the reign of Senusret I (1965–1920 BC) on the west bank of the Nile at the southern end of a series of Middle Kingdom fortresses founded during the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (1985–1795 BC) in the Second-Cataract area of Lower Nubia . There are three forts at Semna: Semna West (Semna Gharb), Semna East (Semna Sherq, also called Kummeh or Kumma ), and Semna South (Semna Gubli). The forts to

160-432: A burial shroud was present, although it was often fragmentary. Objects recovered from these graves are as follows: red ware pottery; jewelry; personal grooming tools; hunting equipment; leather sandals; and clothing. The Christian period graves were oriented east to west and most were deep, narrow, oblong shaft tombs. Only one grave had a superstructure. Of the remains in situ, the bodies were usually extended and supine with

240-476: A narrowed Nile run, and heavy deposits of wind-blown sand". Semna is situated above a geological formation known as the Basement Complex; this complex is a deposit of Precambrian sedimentary rock and later igneous rock . There is only a thin layer of fertile alluvial soil overlying this complex which results in poor agricultural potential. While the fort at Semna South was described by Reisner (1929), it

320-614: A new indigenous alphabet , the Meroitic , consisting of twenty-three letters, replaced Egyptian script. The Meroitic script is an alphabetic script originally derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs, used to write the Meroitic language of the Kingdom of Kush. It was developed in the Napatan Period (c. 700 – 300 BC), and first appears in the 2nd century BC. For a time, it was also possibly used to write

400-582: A power by the 1st or 2nd century AD, sapped by the war with Roman Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries. Meroë is mentioned briefly in the 1st century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea : 2. On the right-hand coast next below Berenice is the country of the Berbers. Along the shore are the Fish-Eaters, living in scattered caves in the narrow valleys. Farther inland are the Berbers, and beyond them

480-631: A tribune and two centurions into this country, who reached the city of Meroë where they were given an escort, then proceeded up the White Nile until they encountered the swamps of the Sudd . This marked the limit of Roman penetration into Africa. The period following Petronius' punitive expedition is marked by abundant trade finds at sites in Meroë. L. P. Kirwan provides a short list of finds from archeological sites in that country. The kingdom of Meroë began to fade as

560-668: Is a well-preserved 12th Dynasty axe, which according to Žabkar and Žabkar (1982), is a rare occurrence in Sudanese and Egyptian Nubia. Second, pottery sherds of the C-Group type (indigenous Nubian inhabitants from ca. 2000 – 1500 BC) were found which suggests a peaceful coexistence between the C-Group individuals and the Egyptians. Third, and most importantly, were seal impressions on numerous pieces of pottery. The most significant seals are those which bore

640-792: Is attested to be the builder of a number of major temples in Ancient Egypt, including the temple of Min at Koptos , the Temple of Satet on Elephantine , the Montu-temple at Armant and the Montu-temple at El-Tod , where a long inscription of the king is preserved. A shrine (known as the White Chapel or Jubilee Chapel) with fine, high quality reliefs of Senusret I, was built at Karnak to commemorate his Year 30 jubilee. It has subsequently been successfully reconstructed from various stone blocks discovered by Henri Chevrier in 1926. Finally, Senusret remodelled

720-589: Is dated to year nine of the king. A certain Nakhr followed in office attested around year 12 of the king. He had a tomb at Lisht. A certain Antef, son of a woman called Zatamun is known again from several stelae, one dates to year 24 another one to year 25 of Senusret I. Another Antef was the son of a woman called Zatuser and was most likely also high steward in the king's reign. Senusret was crowned coregent with his father, Amenemhat I, in his father's 20th regnal year. Towards

800-571: Is mentioned in several inscriptions of this king's reign. Several local officials were involved with the military expedition. Amenemhat , governor of the Oryx nome went there with the title overseer of troops . In year 25 Egypt was devastated by a famine caused by a low Nile flood. Senusret I dispatched several quarrying expeditions to the Sinai and Wadi Hammamat and built numerous shrines and temples throughout Egypt and Nubia during his long reign. He rebuilt

880-473: Is no definitive evidence for such a complex. An area located on the fort's north-west side previously called a ‘graveyard,’ ‘occupation site,’ or an ‘encampment,’ and covered in pot sherds was also excavated during the 1966–1968 field seasons. Upon excavation, it was revealed to be a 12th Dynasty dump site, and was “the most significant [find] for the study of the history of the Semna South fort, particularly for

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960-631: Is possible that the Egyptian word for gold , nub , was the source of name of Nubia . Trade in "exotic" animals from farther south in Africa was another feature of their economy. Apart from the iron trade, pottery was a widespread and prominent industry in the Meroë kingdom. The production of fine and elaborately decorated wares was a strong tradition within the middle Nile. Such productions carried considerable social significance and are believed to be involved in mortuary rites. The long history of goods imported into

1040-653: The Boston Museum of Fine Arts in the 1920s, but Semna South was not formally excavated until the late 1950s. The initial excavation of the fort was directed by Jean Vercoutter and Sayed Thabit Hassan Thabit with the Sudan Antiquities Service in 1956–1957. Further excavations of the fort and an adjacent cemetery were conducted by the Oriental Institute Expedition to Sudanese Nubia, under the direction of Dr. Louis Vico Žabkar , in 1966–1968. Today,

1120-631: The Kingdom of Kush . The Kingdom of Kush spanned the period c. 800 BC – c. 350 AD. Initially, its main capital was farther north at Napata . King Aspelta moved the capital to Meroë, considerably farther south than Napata , possibly c. 591 BC, just after the sack of Napata by Egyptian Pharaoh Psamtik II . Martin Meredith states the Kushite rulers chose Meroë, between the Fifth and Sixth Cataracts , because it

1200-614: The Nobiin language , instead belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan family. The site of Meroë was brought to the knowledge of Europeans in 1821 by the French mineralogist Frédéric Cailliaud (1787–1869), who published an illustrated in-folio describing the ruins. His work included the first publication of the southernmost known Latin inscription. As Margoliouth notes in

1280-787: The Nubian language of the successor Nubian kingdoms. It is uncertain to which language family the Meroitic language is related. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the Egyptian language , belongs to the Afro-Asiatic family. She bases this on its sound inventory and phonotactics , which, she proposes, are similar to those of the Afro-Asiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages. Claude Rilly, based on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary, proposes that Meroitic, like

1360-620: The Story of Sinuhe where he is reported to have rushed back to the royal palace in Memphis from a military campaign in Libya after hearing about the assassination of his father, Amenemhat I . The family relations of the king are well known. Senusret I was the son of Amenemhat I. His mother was a queen with the name Neferitatenen. His main wife was Neferu III who was also his sister and mother of his successor Amenemhat II. The known children are Amenemhat II and

1440-456: The second cataract where he placed a garrison and a victory stele . He also organized an expedition to a Western Desert oasis . Senusret I established diplomatic relations with some rulers of towns in Syria and Canaan . He also tried to centralize the country's political structure by supporting nomarchs who were loyal to him. His pyramid was constructed at el-Lisht . Senusret I is mentioned in

1520-723: The "Island of Meroë", which was the modern region of Butana , a region bounded by the Nile (from the Atbarah River to Khartoum ), the Atbarah and the Blue Nile . The city of Meroë was on the edge of Butana . There were two other Meroitic cities in Butana: Musawwarat es-Sufra and Naqa . The first of these sites was given the name Meroë by the Persian king Cambyses , in honor of his sister who

1600-496: The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica , small scale excavations occurred in 1834, led by Giuseppe Ferlini , who, as Margoliouth states, "discovered (or professed to discover) various antiquities, chiefly in the form of jewelry, now in the museums of Berlin and Munich ." Margoliouth continues, The ruins were examined in 1844 by C. R. Lepsius , who brought many plans, sketches and copies, besides actual antiquities, to Berlin. Further excavations were carried on by E. A. Wallis Budge in

1680-587: The 1966-1968 field seasons. The artifacts recovered from these excavations, including pottery sherds, textiles, jewelry, an axe, and additional seals, indicate that the fort at Semna South was utilized during the Middle Kingdom. The adjacent cemetery with burials from the Meroitic, X-Group, and Christian periods suggests a much longer habitation of the region: from the Middle Kingdom until the Middle Ages. Archaeological excavations of Semna South have contributed to

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1760-631: The 4th century AD. The Aksumite presence was short lived before Meroë was taken by the Kingdom of Alodia . A stele of Ge'ez of an unnamed ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum thought to be Ezana was found at the site of Meroë; from its description, in Greek , he was "King of the Aksumites and the Omerites ," (i.e. of Aksum and Himyar ) it is likely this king ruled sometime around 330. Another inscription in Greek gives

1840-533: The Amun Temple. Meroë flourished and many building projects were undertaken. The first king of the period is Arakamani (270–260 BC), the last ruler is Queen Amanitore (mid/late 1st century AD) Many artifacts were found in Meroitic tombs from around this time. Rome's conquest of Egypt led to border skirmishes and incursions by Meroë beyond the Roman borders. In 23 BC, in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt,

1920-431: The Meroitic empire and distribution of certain crafts and manufactures may have been politically important with their iron industry and pottery crafts gaining the most significant attention. The Meroitic settlements were oriented in a savannah orientation with the varying of permanent and less permanent agricultural settlements can be attributed to the exploitation of rainlands and savannah-oriented forms of subsistence. At

2000-461: The Meroitic empire and their subsequent distribution provides insight into the social and political workings of the Meroitic state. The major determinant of production was attributed to the availability of labor rather than the political power associated with land. Power was associated with control of people rather than control of territory. The sakia , was used to move water, in conjunction with irrigation, to increase crop production. At its peak,

2080-606: The Meroitic kingdom that allowed for the rise in power of its people. According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, Meroitic "d" was transcribed in foreign languages as "r", with the native name of the city being Medewi . The Kings ruled over Napata and Meroë. The seat of government and the royal palace were in Meroë . The Main temple of Amun was located in Napata . Kings and many queens are buried in Nuri , some queens are buried in Meroë , in

2160-718: The Meroitic period (4th century BC – 4th century AD), 50 from the X-Group period (4th – 6th century AD), and 16 from the Christian period (550 – 1500 AD). The Meroitic period through the Christian period is a span of approximately 2,000 years, which indicates that the fort was used for an extended period of time during Egyptian and Nubian history. The Meroitic graves were oriented east to west and were of several styles: rectangular pit graves with superstructures resembling mastabas , oblong pits without superstructures, and rectangular pits with mud-brick burial vaults. For those remains found in situ,

2240-457: The Roman governor of Egypt, Publius Petronius , invaded Nubia to end the Meroitic raids. He pillaged northern Nubia and sacked Napata (22 BC) before returning home. In retaliation, the Nubians crossed the lower border of Egypt and looted many statues from the Egyptian towns near the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan. Roman forces later reclaimed some of the statues, and others were returned following

2320-461: The Semna region were built by the Egyptians in response to the “strong pressures and infiltration attempts on the part of southerners during the 12th Dynasty, allusions to which are found in the well-known Semna Stela and Semna Dispatches”. Žabkar and Žabkar (1982) speculate that perhaps there was a complex of fortifications which embraced Semna South and West, and perhaps other forts in the region, but there

2400-604: The Seti-land”. This find is important because it officially confirms the Egyptian name of the fort at Semna South and clarifies the fragmentary name written on the Ramesseum papyrus. Additionally it signifies the role of Egypt in Nubia: ruler. The Oriental Institute Expedition also excavated the large cemetery to the north of the fort. This cemetery contained approximately 560 graves—representing over 800 individuals—of which about 494 were from

2480-491: The Temple of Khenti-Amentiu Osiris at Abydos , among his other major building projects. Some of the key members of the court of Senusret I are known. The vizier at the beginning of his reign was Intefiqer , who is known from many inscriptions and from his tomb next to the pyramid of Amenemhat I. He seems to have held this office for a long period of time and was followed by a vizier named Senusret . Two treasurers are known from

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2560-466: The West Cemetery. The earliest king was Analmaye (542–538 BC) and the last king of the first phase is Nastasen (335–315 BC) In the fifth century BC, Greek historian Herodotus described it as "a great city...said to be the mother city of the other Ethiopians." Excavations revealed evidence of important, high ranking Kushite burials from the Napatan Period (c. 800 – c. 280 BC) in the vicinity of

2640-571: The Wild-flesh-Eaters and Calf-Eaters, each tribe governed by its chief; and behind them, farther inland, in the country towards the west, there lies a city called Meroe. Kings were buried in Meroë , in the North Cemetery, and Queens in West Cemetery. In 350 AD Meroë was destroyed by Axum . The first king of the fourth period was Shorkaror (1st century AD), while the last rulers may have been King Yesebokheamani or King Talakhidamani in

2720-482: The X-Group were oriented north to south and most were deep pits with a lateral chamber. Most of the graves, according to Žabkar and Žabkar (1982), “had a shelf, composed of earth, mud-brick, or stones, running alongside the chamber, which supported the blocking material”. For the remains found in situ, the bodies were in a flexed position on their sides with the heads facing towards the north, northwest, or south. In most cases

2800-465: The church or nearby. However, they did provide a hypothetical estimate: “the church in its final, that is apsidal, form would date to the classic Christian period in Nubia, somewhere between the ninth and the first part of the eleventh century A.D.". This expedition unearthed a great wall which connected the forts at Semna South and Semna West. This wall strengthened the view that the military fortifications in

2880-414: The city of Meroë, which was then called Saba. The city was built near the confluence of two great rivers and was encircled by a formidable wall, and governed by a renegade king. To ensure the safety of his men who traversed that desert country, Moses had invented a stratagem whereby the Egyptian army would carry along with them baskets of sedge, each containing an ibis, only to be released when they approached

2960-506: The east and west of the Semna Cataract are Semna East and West, respectively; Semna South is approximately one kilometer south of Semna West on the west bank of the Nile. The Semna gorge, at the southern edge of ancient Egypt, was the narrowest part of the Nile valley. It was here, at this strategic location, that the 12th Dynasty pharaohs built a cluster of four mud-brick fortresses: Semna, Kumma, Semna South and Uronarti — all covered by

3040-488: The ebony, the ivory, the pelts, the incense and resin, the ostrich feathers, the black slaves, were as much desired by the kings of the Middle Kingdom as by their forebears”. Thus, forts were built along the Nile to protect the waterway from nomadic tribes and to facilitate the flow of Nubian goods into Egypt. Forts surrounding Semna South were excavated by the Joint Egyptian Expedition of Harvard University and

3120-669: The end of his own life, he appointed his son Amenemhat II as his coregent . The stele of Wepwawetō is dated to the 44th year of Senusret and to the 2nd year of Amenemhet, thus he would have appointed him some time in his 43rd year. Senusret is thought to have died during his 46th year on the throne since the Turin Canon ascribes him a reign of 45 Years. Mero%C3%AB Meroë ( / ˈ m ɛr oʊ iː / ; also spelled Meroe ; Meroitic : Medewi ; Arabic : مرواه , romanized :  Meruwah and مروي , Meruwi ; Ancient Greek : Μερόη , romanized :  Meróē )

3200-429: The enemy's country. The purpose of the birds was to kill the deadly serpents that lay all about that country. Having successfully laid siege to the city, the city was eventually subdued by the betrayal of the king's daughter, who had agreed to deliver the city to Moses on condition that he would consummate a marriage with her, under the solemn assurance of an oath. Meroë was the base of a flourishing kingdom whose wealth

3280-453: The exercise of state power over subsistence production. The Kingdom of Kush which housed the city of Meroë represents one of a series of early states located within the middle Nile. It was one of the earliest and most advanced states found on the African continent. Looking at the specificity of the surrounding early states within the middle Nile, one's understanding of Meroë in combination with

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3360-431: The following features: a glacis , outer girdle wall, an inner ditch, a main wall, and an open inner space. They concluded that the fort was never inhabited permanently; rather, it was occupied for limited periods of time by men of the garrison coming from the fort at Semna West. They found little evidence of Middle Kingdom occupation, but did discover ruins of a Christian settlement at Semna South. The Christian settlement

3440-404: The fort was permanently occupied from the reign of Senusret I to the first few years of reign of Amenemhat III of the 12th Dynasty . Excavations of the church, sometimes called the “Sheik’s tomb,” revealed that only a portion of the original structure still remained. As of 1982 when Žabkar and Žabkar published their report, they were not able to date the church due to the paucity of pottery within

3520-458: The hair color of these individuals was lighter than previously thought in ancient Nubia and the hair of the X-Group males was curlier than the Meroitic males. In 1993, Arriaza, Merbs, and Rothschild published a study evaluating the prevalence of a pathological condition known as diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). They found that approximately 13% of the individuals from the Meroitic cemetery were afflicted with this condition and that it

3600-420: The hands over the pelvis with the heads oriented towards the west. One body was found on its side in a flexed position facing north. Most of the bodies were wrapped in a linen or wool shroud which had been secured by a chord. The human remains recovered from Semna South have been studied by numerous anthropologists and other specialists. Hrdy (1978) analyzed hair samples from Semna South mummies. He concluded that

3680-411: The heads were oriented to the west and the bodies were extended on their backs with hands over the pelvis. Numerous artifacts were found within the Meroitic graves: black and brown wear pottery; copper and bronze bowls; a finely carved wooden bowl; a glass ointment jar; bronze mirrors; copper, iron, and bronze jewelry; beads and pendants; hunting equipment; leather; and fragments of shrouds. The graves of

3760-399: The historical developments of other historic states may be enhanced through looking at the development of power relation characteristics within other Nile Valley states. The site of the city of Meroë is marked by more than two hundred pyramids in three groups, of which many are in ruins. They have the distinctive size and proportions of Nubian pyramids . Meroë was the southern capital of

3840-661: The human remains from Semna South are curated at Arizona State University and the archaeological artifacts are curated at the University of Chicago Oriental Institute .(H. McDonald, personal communication, October 22, 2012). Semna South is located in the Batn-El-Hajar (“Belly of the Rock”) region of Nubia between the second and third cataracts. As its name implies, the Batn-El-Hajar is “characterized by ‘bare granite ridges and gullies’,

3920-698: The important temple of Re-Atum in Heliopolis which was the centre of the sun cult. He erected 2 red granite obelisks there to celebrate his Year 30 Heb Sed Jubilee . One of the obelisks still remains and is the oldest standing obelisk in Egypt. It is now in the Al-Masalla (Obelisk in Arabic) area of Al-Matariyyah district near the Ain Shams district ( Heliopolis ). It is 67 feet tall and weighs 120 tons or 240,000 pounds. Senusret I

4000-516: The name of the fort, which until this discovery was only partially known. Prior to this seal being found, the Egyptian name of the fort at Semna South was written in hieratic as “Repressing the…” on a fragmentary piece of papyrus discovered in 1896 by James Quibell near the Ramesseum . After studying these seals, Dr. Žabkar translated the hieroglyphics as “Subduer of the Setiu-Nubians” or “Subduer of

4080-787: The overall understanding of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt fort system. These forts established military control over Upper and Lower Nubia and the Nile river transport of commodities, and were integral parts of the Egyptian empire. The temples of Dedwen and Sesostris III were moved to the National Museum of Sudan in Khartoum prior to the flooding of Lake Nasser . 21°30′00″N 30°58′01″E  /  21.500°N 30.967°E  / 21.500; 30.967 Senusret I Senusret I ( Middle Egyptian : z-n-wsrt ; /suʀ nij ˈwas.ɾiʔ/) also anglicized as Sesostris I and Senwosret I ,

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4160-465: The peace treaty signed in 22 BC between Rome and Meroë under Augustus and Amanirenas , respectively. One looted head , from a statue of the emperor Augustus , was buried under the steps of a temple in Meroë; it is now kept in the British Museum . The next recorded contact between Rome and Meroë was in the autumn of 61 AD. The Emperor Nero sent a party of Praetorian soldiers under the command of

4240-420: The people of Meroë also had southern deities such as Apedemak , the lion-son of Sekhmet (or Bast , depending upon the region), they also continued worshipping ancient Egyptian gods that they had brought with them. Among these deities were Amun , Tefnut , Horus , Isis , Thoth and Satis , though to a lesser extent. The collapse of their external trade with other Nile Valley states may be considered one of

4320-505: The prime causes of the decline of royal power and disintegration of the Meroitic state in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. The Meroitic language was spoken in Meroë and the Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BC). It became extinct around 400 AD. The language was written in two forms of the Meroitic alphabet : Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a stylus and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which

4400-471: The princesses Itakayt and Sebat . The latter was most likely a daughter of Neferu III as she appears with the latter together in one inscription. Later in life his father was killed. In his 18th year of reign Senusret I launched a military campaign against Lower Nubia and conquered the region down to the Second Cataract . The date of the expedition is mentioned on a stela from Buhen. The military campaign

4480-544: The regnal claims of Ezana : I, Ezana , King of the Axumites and Himyarites and of Reeidan and of the Sabaites and of Sileel (?) and of Hasa and of the Bougaites and of Taimo... While some authorities interpret these inscriptions as proof that the Axumites destroyed the Kingdom of Kush, others note that archeological evidence points to an economic and political decline in Meroë around 300. Jewish oral tradition avers that Moses , in his younger years, had led an Egyptian military expedition into Sudan (Kush), as far as

4560-401: The reign of the king: Sobekhotep (year 22) and Mentuhotep . The latter had a huge tomb next to the pyramid of the king and he seems to have been the main architect of the Amun temple at Karnak. Several high stewards are attested. Hor is known from several stelae and from an inscription in the Wadi el-Hudi where he was evidently the leader of an expedition for amethyst . One of the stelae

4640-403: The reliefs on the chapel walls, already described by Lepsius, and containing the names with representations of queens and some kings, with some chapters of the Book of the Dead ; some steles with inscriptions in the Meroitic language, and some vessels of metal and earthenware. The best of the reliefs were taken down stone by stone in 1905, and set up partly in the British Museum and partly in

4720-404: The remainder of the Semna South fort and the adjacent cemetery. Detailed excavations were conducted of the fort walls, a church, a dump site, and the cemetery. To the author's knowledge, this was the final archaeological excavation conducted at Semna South. During the 1956–1957 field season, Vercoutter and colleagues were able to interpret the building plan of the fort. The building is composed of

4800-435: The remains of temples, houses and cemeteries dating to the New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC), which would have been roughly contemporary with such lower Nubian towns as Amara West and Sesebisudla , when the second cataract region had become part of an Egyptian 'empire', rather than simply a frontier zone. The fort had several advanced features – the mudbrick walls were reinforced with logs, there were doubly fortified gates, there

4880-434: The result of interpersonal violence. Dissertations and theses which used the Semna South remains are numerous. They include topics such as the sexual dimorphism of dental pathology, the presence of schistosomiasis in ancient Nubia, non-metric biological distance analysis, and a craniometric analysis. Excavated between 1956–57 and 1966–68, Semna South is a 12th Dynasty fort located in Nubia —the present Republic of Sudan —on

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4960-466: The royal palace are in Meroë. Kings and many queens are buried in Meroë , in the South Cemetery. Napata remained relevant for the Amun Temple. The first King of the period was Aktisanes (Early 3rd century BC) and the last king of the period was Sabrakamani (first half 3rd century BC). The seat of government and the royal palace are in Meroë . Kings are buried in Meroë , in the North Cemetery, and Queens in West Cemetery. Napata remained relevant for

5040-427: The rulers of Meroë controlled the Nile Valley north to south, over a straight-line distance of more than 1,000 km (620 mi). The King of Meroë was an autocratic ruler who shared his authority only with the Queen Mother, or Candace . However, the role of the Queen Mother remains obscure. The administration consisted of treasurers , seal bearers, heads of archives and chief scribes , among others. Although

5120-440: The settlement called the Western Cemetery. The importance of the town gradually increased from the beginning of the Meroitic Period , especially from the reign of Arakamani (c. 280 BC) when the royal burial ground was transferred to Meroë from Napata ( Gebel Barkal ). Royal burials formed the Pyramids of Meroë , containing the remains of the Kings and Queens of Meroë from c. 300 BC to about 350 AD. The seat of government and

5200-425: The site: “it seems of the utmost importance for the history of the site that new excavations are undertaken at Semna South before its flooding under the waters of the new Aswan Dam”. Beginning in 1966 the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago continued excavating where Vercoutter and colleagues had ended. Between 1966 and 1968 the University of Chicago Oriental Institute Expedition to Sudanese Nubia excavated

5280-528: The study of its communications with the other forts of the first and second cataract regions”. The dump site was a series of holes which were initially clay quarries and later utilized as a dumping place for discarded fort objects. Some of the holes were deep and some were shallow; the two deepest were K-1 and K-4. Within these holes, the discarded objects and pottery sherds were mixed into a loose mass of debris with no discernible stratigraphic layers. The finds within these holes are of great significance. The first

5360-418: The time, iron was one of the most important metals worldwide, and Meroitic metalworkers were among the best in the world. Meroë traded ivory, slaves, rare skins, ostrich feathers, copper, and ebony. Meroë also exported textiles and jewelry . Their textiles were based on cotton and working on this product reached its highest achievement in Nubia around 400 BC. Furthermore, Nubia was very rich in gold . It

5440-436: The waters of Lake Nasser since the completion of the Aswan Dam in 1971. Many of its monuments were relocated as part of the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia . The rectangular Kumma fortress, the L-shaped Semna fortress (on the opposite bank) and the smaller square fortress of Semna South were each investigated by the American archaeologist George Reisner in 1924 and 1928. Semna and Kumma also included

5520-411: The west bank of the Nile. These excavations revealed the building plan of the fort, a church, a cemetery, and numerous other settlement-related features. Some of the most important discoveries were found within dumps near the fort. In particular, Žabkar recovered pottery seals which provided the Egyptian name of the fort (“Subduer of the Setiu-Nubians” or “Subduer of the Seti-land”) which was unknown until

5600-462: The years 1902 and 1905, the results of which are recorded in his work, The Egyptian Sudan: its History and Monuments … Troops were furnished by Sir Reginald Wingate , governor of the Sudan, who made paths to and between the pyramids, and sank shafts, &c. It was found that the pyramids were regularly built over sepulchral chambers, containing the remains of bodies either burned or buried without being mummified. The most interesting objects found were

5680-458: Was a fortified corridor down to the Nile allowing ready access to water supplies. The logs increased the vulnerability to fire, and traces of fires can be seen on the walls. As a 12th Dynasty fort, Semna South is one of 17 Middle Kingdom Egyptian forts in Nubia built for the purpose of controlling trade traffic along the Nile. The Egyptian state placed great importance on control of Nubia and its goods. As Reisner (1929) notes, “the southern products,

5760-496: Was an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi , Sudan , approximately 200 km north-east of Khartoum . Near the site is a group of villages called Bagrawiyah ( Arabic : البجراوية ). This city was the capital of the Kingdom of Kush for several centuries from around 590 BC, until its collapse in the 4th century AD. The Kushitic Kingdom of Meroë gave its name to

5840-443: Was called by that name. The city had originally borne the ancient appellation Saba , named after the country's original founder. The eponym Saba , or Seba , is named for one of the sons of Cush (see Genesis 10:7). The presence of numerous Meroitic sites within the western Butana region and on the border of Butana proper is significant to the settlement of the core of the developed region. The orientation of these settlements exhibit

5920-418: Was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of bilingual texts. The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of Queen Shanakdakhete . Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and reads from right to left like all Semitic orthographies. By the 3rd century BC,

6000-452: Was centered around a strong iron industry. Metalworking is believed to have taken place in Meroë, possibly through bloomeries and blast furnaces . Archibald Sayce reportedly referred to it as "the Birmingham of Africa", because of perceived vast production and trade of iron (a contention that is a matter of debate in modern scholarship). The centralized control of production within

6080-463: Was more common among males. Alvrus (1999) assessed the skeletal fracture patterns for almost 600 individuals from the Semna South site. She analyzed healed fractures of the skull and appendicular skeleton and found that almost 21% of adults had at least one healed fracture and that the skull was the most frequently injured region of the body. She attributes much of the trauma to the rocky physical environment, but also notes that craniofacial trauma may be

6160-405: Was not formally excavated until 1956–1957 by the Sudan Antiquities Service under the direction of Jean Vercoutter and Sayed Thabit Hassan Thabit. This excavation explored the majority (four-fifths) of the fort and “made a limited trial digging” in the adjacent Meroitic cemetery. Vercoutter (1966) notes that their work was preliminary and by no means complete. He encouraged further investigation of

6240-412: Was not fully excavated by the Sudan Antiquities Service expedition, but they did note that the houses had been reconstructed by the Christian inhabitants and that they had built a new stone girdle wall around the west side of the fort. They concluded that the Christian settlement had been inhabited by a fairly poor community. The 1966–1968 excavations at Semna South determined, contrary to Vercoutter, that

6320-545: Was on the fringe of the summer rainfall belt, and the area was rich in iron ore and hardwood for iron working . The location also afforded access to trade routes to the Red Sea . The city of Meroë was located along the middle Nile which is of much importance due to the annual flooding of the Nile river valley and the connection to many major river systems such as the Niger which aided with the production of pottery and iron characteristic to

6400-630: Was the second pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt . He ruled from 1971 BC to 1926 BC (1920 BC to 1875 BC), and was one of the most powerful kings of this Dynasty. He was the son of Amenemhat I . Senusret I was known by his prenomen, Kheperkare , which means "the Ka of Re is created." He expanded the territory of Egypt allowing him to rule over an age of prosperity. He continued his father's aggressive expansionist policies against Nubia by initiating two expeditions into this region in his 10th and 18th years and established Egypt's formal southern border near

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