Misplaced Pages

#509490

92-599: The history of the League of the Islanders is relatively obscure, as no literary sources about it have survived. The only evidence comes from inscriptions. In 314/3 BC, Antigonus I Monophthalmus sent a fleet under his nephew Dioscurides to the Aegean islands , in order to defend them against the fleet of Ptolemy I and secure their allegiance to his cause. Although the League of the Islanders does not appear until 306 BC, modern scholarship

184-615: A "Second Nesiotic League" under the hegemony of Rhodes. The motivations for Rhodes' move are unclear, but the historian Kenneth Sheedy has suggested that they stemmed at least partly from a desire to preempt other powers, whether the Kingdom of Pergamon or the Roman Republic , from establishing control over the area. Unlike the original League however, the Second League appears to have been a more voluntary association. The Second Nesiotic League

276-584: A difficult position, having gained the support of the Greeks and defeating Cassander repeatedly. Antigonus demanded from Cassander the unconditional submission of Macedonia. Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy responded by joining forces and attacking him. Lysimachus and Cassander's general Prepelaos invaded Asia Minor from Thrace, crossing the Hellespont . Lysimachus had soon secured most of the Ionian cities. Meanwhile, Seleucus

368-409: A failure as he was unable to penetrate Ptolemy's defences and was obliged to retire, although he inflicted heavy losses on Ptolemy. In 305 BC, Demetrius attempted the reduction of Rhodes , which had refused to assist Antigonus against Egypt. The siege of Rhodes lasted a year and ended in 304 BC when Demetrius, meeting with obstinate resistance, was obliged to make a peace treaty upon the terms that

460-589: A garrison, the Ptolemies abandoned the central Aegean. Many scholars, like William Woodthorpe Tarn and Maurice Holleaux , suggested that the Ptolemaic withdrawal resulted in a Macedonian hegemony over the Cyclades, while others, like Hendrik van Gelder, or P. M. Fraser and G. E. Bean, posited a Rhodian hegemony, either in direct succession of the Ptolemies, or, more often, after the 230s/220s BC. Reger, however, considers that

552-560: A major royal treasury, in Susiana . In Susa, Eumenes sent letters to all the satraps to the north and east of Susiana, ordering them in the kings' names to join him with all their forces. When the satraps joined Eumenes he had a considerable force, with which he could look forward with some confidence to doing battle against Antigonus. Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements Antigonus, meanwhile, had reached Susa and left Seleucus there to besiege

644-580: A much smaller scale. In the 1920s and 1930s, farmers in Australia and Canada reacted against the pricing power of the large grain-handling and shipping companies. Their governments created the Australian Wheat Board and the Canadian Wheat Board as monopsony marketing boards , buying all the wheat in those countries for export. Together, those two boards controlled a large percentage of

736-528: A naval force on behalf of Polyperchon. When it was ready he sent the fleet west to reinforce Polyperchon, but off the coast of Cilicia it was met by Antigonus's fleet and changed sides. Antigonus had settled his affairs in Asia Minor and marched east into Cilicia, intent on doing battle with Eumenes in Syria. Eumenes somehow had advance knowledge of this and marched out of Phoenicia, through Syria into Mesopotamia, with

828-439: A peace upon them. By this peace he had attained the zenith of his power. Antigonus's empire and alliance system now comprised Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia and northern Mesopotamia. The peace agreement was soon violated by Ptolemy and Cassander based on the pretext that garrisons had been placed in some of the free Greek cities by Antigonus. Ptolemy and Cassander renewed hostilities against Antigonus. Demetrius Poliorcetes,

920-523: A series of inscriptions for its Ptolemaic period, but it appears that the main characteristics were present already under Antigonus, and according to Richard Billows "the evidence for the Ptolemaic period can be used (with due caution) for the Antigonid period" as well. As Walther Schwahn commented, the constitution of the League of Islanders shows "distinct differences" from the constitutions of other contemporary Greek leagues, since "the League did not exist in

1012-523: A square mile) or more for little or no fee. This moved grain growing, and hence trading, to a much more massive scale. Huge grain elevators were built to take in farmers' produce and move it out via the railways to port. Transportation costs were a major concern for farmers in remote regions, however, and any technology that allowed the easier movement of grain was of great assistance; meanwhile, farmers in Europe struggled to remain competitive while operating on

SECTION 10

#1732848898510

1104-439: A surplus of it, but rather to produce everything his family needs and become self-sufficient . Only in places and eras where production is geared towards producing a surplus for trade ( commercial agriculture ), does a major grain trade become possible. In the ancient world, grain regularly flowed from the hinterlands to the cores of great empires: maize in ancient Mexico , rice in ancient China , and wheat and barley in

1196-463: A task he apparently could not or would not complete without additional aid. Perdiccas seems to have viewed this as a direct affront to his authority, and led the royal army to conquer the area. From there, Perdiccas turned west towards Phrygia as a provocation toward Antigonus, who escaped with his son Demetrius to Greece, where he obtained the favor of Antipater , the viceroy of Macedonia (321 BC), and Craterus , one of Alexander's top generals. During

1288-470: Is as old as agricultural settlement, identified in many of the early cultures that adopted sedentary farming. Major societal changes have been directly connected to the grain trade, such as the fall of the Roman Empire . From the early modern period onward, grain trade has been an important part of colonial expansion and international power dynamics. The geopolitical dominance of countries like Australia,

1380-537: Is commonly held to have lasted until the end of Rhodian independence at the conclusion of the Third Macedonian War in 167 BC, but Sheedy suggests that it may have started to disintegrate earlier, as the Rhodians focused their attention on maintaining their grip over their Asian holdings and could no longer afford to maintain the costly hegemony over the Cyclades. The League's institutions are well attested through

1472-428: Is mentioned, it was probably headed by the nēsiarchos . The synedrion awarded honours and distinctions to benefactors, and levied both regular and extraordinary financial contributions (συντάξεις, syntaxeis or εἰσφοραί, eisphorai ) for maintenance of the League's military and for the common festivals. These funds were administered by a treasurer (ταμίας, tamias ). Surplus funds were available for other projects, e.g.

1564-424: Is no evidence for an assembly of the citizens , probably since the distances made this impractical. The League had a strongly federal character, exemplified by the fact that the conferment of citizenship by any member automatically conferred citizenship in all other member states. There was no distinct League citizenship, but the League could grant foreign benefactors the citizenship for each of its members, as well as

1656-456: Is unanimous in placing its establishment in the immediate aftermath of that campaign. The League was centred on Delos and stood under the protection of Antigonus, in whose honour annual games, the Antigoneia (Ἀντιγόνεια), after 306 BC alternating with games (Δημητρίεια, Dēmētrieia ) in honour of Antigonus' son Demetrius Poliorcetes , were celebrated. Despite the defeat and death of Antigonus at

1748-481: The 2007–2008 world food price crisis . More recently, the dominance of Ukraine and Russia in grain markets such as wheat meant that the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 caused increased fears of a global food crises in 2022 . Changes to agriculture caused by climate change are expected to have cascading effects on global grain markets. The grain trade is probably nearly as old as grain growing , going back

1840-636: The Babylonian War , during which Seleucus defeated both Demetrius and Antigonus, and secured control over the eastern provinces. After the Babylonian War, which lasted from 311 BC to 309 BC, a peace was concluded between Antigonus and Seleucus leaving them both to consolidate their power in their respective realms (Antigonus in the West and Seleucus in the East). In the West, Antigonus had worn down his enemies and forced

1932-747: The Battle of Cretopolis . Antigonus, in two brilliant campaigns in the course of one campaigning season, had annihilated the remnants of the Perdiccan faction with the exception of Eumenes, who was bottled up in Nora. When Antipater died in 319 BC, he left the regentship to Polyperchon , excluding Cassander , his son. Antigonus and the other dynasts refused to recognize Polyperchon, since it would have undermined their own ambitions. Antigonus entered into negotiations with Eumenes, but Eumenes had already been swayed by Polyperchon, who gave him authority over all other generals within

SECTION 20

#1732848898510

2024-561: The Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, Demetrius retained control of the Antigonid fleet and thus of the League until c.  287/6 BC , when he was defeated and captured by Seleucus I . As a result, the islands passed under the hegemony of the Ptolemaic Kingdom , and the games were renamed as Sotēria Ptolemaia (Σωτήρια Πτολεμαῖα) and Philadelphia (Φιλαδέλφεια) in honour of Ptolemy I Soter and his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus . The islands remained under Ptolemaic control until sometime in

2116-785: The Bosporus . In 201 BC, during the Cretan War , Philip V of Macedon subdued the Cyclades at the head of his fleet, but already in the next year, the Rhodians took over of most of the islands except for the Macedonian-garrisoned islands of Andros, Paros , and Kythnos. Followed by further Macedonian setbacks in the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC), the Cycladic islands, already bound individually to Rhodes by treaties of alliance, were soon after—an exact date cannot be ascertained—formed into

2208-561: The Cretan cities and the Aetolian League ; both of the latter secretly sponsored by King Philip V of Macedon . By c.  220 BC , according to Polybius ( The Histories , IV.47.1), the Rhodians "were considered the supreme authority in maritime matters" and were called upon by merchants to intervene in cases such as the imposition of tolls by the Byzantines on passage of ships through

2300-540: The First War of the Diadochi , he formed a coalition with Antipater, Craterus and Ptolemy . In 320 BC, Antigonus sailed to and secured Cyprus. The war ended in 320 BC, when Perdiccas was murdered by discontented officers ( Seleucus and Antigenes ) while unsuccessfully trying to invade Ptolemy's satrapy of Egypt. With the death of Perdiccas in 321 BC, a new attempt at dividing the empire took place at Triparadisus . Antipater

2392-492: The Neolithic Revolution (around 9,500 BCE). Wherever there is a scarcity of land (e.g. cities), people must bring in food from outside to sustain themselves, either by force or by trade. However, many farmers throughout history (and today) have operated at the subsistence level , meaning they produce for household needs and have little leftover to trade. The goal for such farmers is not to specialize in one crop and grow

2484-483: The Partition of Babylon . However, he later incurred the enmity of Perdiccas , the regent of Alexander's empire, and was driven from Phrygia. He fled to Greece and formed an alliance with Antipater , later joined by Ptolemy , against Perdiccas. Perdiccas was murdered by his own officers in 320 BC, and Antipater was elected the new regent. During a series of wars between Alexander's successors , Antigonus briefly emerged as

2576-595: The Second Syrian War (260–253). Modern research connects this with the Ptolemaic naval defeats at the hands of the Macedonians and the Rhodians at Cos , Ephesus , and Andros —the precise dating of these battles has been heavily disputed among historians, but they are now usually dated to 261 BC, c.  258 BC , and 246/5 BC respectively. It appears that when Ptolemaic control was first interrupted, after Ephesus,

2668-779: The World Trade Organization , or attempted to negotiate them away though the Cairns Group , at the same time the wheat boards have been reformed and many tariffs have been greatly reduced, leading to a further globalization of the industry. For example, in 2008 Mexico was required by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) to remove its tariffs on US and Canadian maize . Similarly, protections in other contexts, such as guaranteed prices for grains in India, have been an important lifeline for small farmers in

2760-516: The ancient Near East . With this came improving technologies for storing and transporting grains; the Hebrew Bible makes frequent mention of ancient Egypt 's massive grain silos . Merchant shipping was important for the carriage of grain in the classical period (and continues to be so). A Roman merchant ship could carry a cargo of grain the length of the Mediterranean for the cost of moving

2852-520: The panhellenic sanctuary at Delos. According to Reger, by and large the individual Cycladic islands appear to have remained free and autonomous for the rest of the century. In the meantime, Rhodes rose to become the chief naval power in the Aegean and even beyond. In order to protect their political and commercial interests, such as the grain trade , where Rhodes held a dominant position, the Rhodians were active against pirates such as Demetrius of Pharos or

League of the Islanders - Misplaced Pages Continue

2944-497: The steamship shifted trade from local to more international patterns. During this time, debate over tariffs and free trade in grain was fierce. Poor industrial workers relied on cheap bread for sustenance, but farmers wanted their government to create a higher local price to protect them from cheap foreign imports , resulting in legislation such as Britain's Corn Laws . As Britain and other European countries industrialized and urbanized, they became net importers of grain from

3036-541: The 2004 film Alexander , directed by Oliver Stone , Antigonus is played by Ian Beattie . Antigonus appears (under the Greek form of his name, Antigonos) in L. Sprague de Camp 's historical novels An Elephant for Aristotle and The Bronze God of Rhodes , set approximately twenty years apart. Antigonus figures as the main antagonist in Christian Cameron 's historical novel A Force of Kings . Antigonus appears in

3128-610: The Macedonian Army, as by the time he emerges in historical sources he is noted as being in command of a large part of Alexander's army, with responsibility over approximately 7,000 allied Greek infantry. There is an anecdote recorded by Plutarch about an Antigonus who lost an eye at the Siege of Perinthus in 340 BC after "a catapult bolt struck him in the eye". According to historian Richard Billows , this story "fits Antigonos better than we know it to fit anyone else." Since Antigonus

3220-778: The Persian Empire. Alexander did not trust his Greek infantry and had left them behind when he marched to confront the Western Satraps ; therefore Antigonus did not participate in the Battle of the Granicus . When Alexander marched east, he appointed Antigonus as satrap of Phrygia . As Satrap of Phrygia, Antigonus besieged a garrison of mercenaries (1,000 Carians and 100 Greeks) the Persians had left behind and after their surrender he enrolled them in his service allowing him to send his own Greek troops (1,500 mercenaries) to reinforce Alexander for

3312-509: The Persian army regrouped in Cappadocia and attempted to sever Alexander's lines of supply and communication running through the centre of Asia Minor; however, Antigonus defeated the Persian forces in three separate battles. After defeating the Persian counter-attack, Antigonus focused on conquering the rest of Phrygia and maintaining Alexander's lines of communication and supply. At the division of

3404-469: The Ptolemaic commander Philocles on Samos is also attested—and where its decrees were set up. In the Rhodian period, where Delos was not a member of the League, the synedrion assembled on Tenos . As the League's sole collective organ, the synedrion was a sort of legislative council with representatives (σύνεδροι, synedroi ) appointed by the member states. It assembled on an ad hoc basis. Since no chairman

3496-434: The Ptolemaic period. The membership of the sacred island of Delos , which played a central role in the League, has been disputed by Walther Kolbe, who argued that Delos remained independent of the League; most scholars however consider it to have been a full member of the League. The League was headed by the nēsiarchos (νησίαρχος, "ruler of the islands") and a council (συνέδριον, synedrion ). Unlike similar leagues, there

3588-456: The Ptolemaic position collapsed completely after Andros, both as a result of the military losses as due to the lack of strategic interest: unlike earlier in the century, when the Cyclades had served as a springboard for interference in the Greek mainland, at this point the Ptolemies had more vital concerns in the Levant and Asia Minor to pursue. Consequently, except for Thera , where they maintained

3680-534: The Rhodians stepped into the power vacuum, concluding alliances with some of the islands like Ios . Ptolemaic control was possibly re-asserted to some degree after the end of the Second Syrian War, and a Ptolemaia festival was once again celebrated in 249 and 246 BC, but the evidence is meager. As the historian Gary Reger writes, the celebration of the festival "can be attributed as much to piety and tradition as to advertisement of political hegemony". At any rate,

3772-539: The Rhodians would build ships for Antigonus and aid him against any enemy except for Ptolemy, on whom they bestowed the title Soter (savior) for his aid during the lengthy siege. The most powerful dynasts of the empire, now kings in their own right, Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus, responded to Antigonus's successes by allying with each other, often through marriage. Antigonus soon found himself at war with all four, largely because his territory shared borders with each of them. In 304–303, Demetrius had Cassander in

League of the Islanders - Misplaced Pages Continue

3864-544: The United States, Canada and the Soviet Union during the 20th century was connected with their status as grain surplus countries. More recently, international commodity markets have been an important part of the dynamics of food systems and grain pricing . Speculation , as well as other compounding production and supply factors leading up to the 2007–2008 financial crises , created rapid inflation of grain prices during

3956-550: The available epigraphic and other evidence shows few indications of a Rhodian predominance, while the Macedonian kings seem to have limited their interest to the islands closest to the Greek mainland—Macedonian control is attested for Andros and possibly Keos and Kythnos , with some influence, probably temporary, in Amorgos and Paros in the direct aftermath of the Battle of Andros—and

4048-462: The battle after being struck by a javelin, in the eighty-first year of his life. Prior to Ipsus, he had never lost a battle. With his death, any plans for reuniting Alexander's empire came to an end. Antigonus's kingdom was divided up, with most of his territories ending up in the hands of the new kingdoms ruled by Lysimachus and Seleucus. The victors largely followed Antigonus's precedent and had themselves named as kings, but they did not claim power over

4140-580: The battle but lost control of his army's baggage camp thanks to his ally Peucestas ' duplicity or incompetence. This loss was especially severe for the Silver Shields; the camp contained loot they had accumulated over 30 years of successful warfare, as well as the soldiers' women and children. Approached by Teutamus, one of their commanders, Antigonus offered to return the baggage train in exchange for custody of Eumenes. The Silver Shields complied, arresting Eumenes and his officers and handing them over. The war

4232-452: The city of Rome was considered to be of the utmost strategic importance to Roman generals and politicians. In Europe, with the fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of feudalism , many farmers were reduced to a subsistence level, producing only enough to fulfill their obligation to their lord and the Church , with little for themselves, and even less for trading. The little that was traded

4324-514: The development of new crops. Price volatility greatly effects countries that are dependent on grain imports, such as certain countries in the MENA region . "Price volatility is a life-and-death issue for many people around the world" warned ICTSD Senior Fellow Sergio Marchi. "Trade policies need to incentivize investment in developing country agriculture, so that poor farmers can build resistance to future price shocks". Two major price volatility crises in

4416-517: The earlier chapters of Alfred Duggan 's historical novel Elephants and Castles (U.S. title: Besieger of Cities ), based on the life of his son Demetrius. Antigonous is a supporting antagonist in the Eric Flint alternate history novel The Alexander Inheritance, and its sequel The Macedonian Hazard. Satrap at Partition of Babylon; possibly Nicanor of Stageira Satrap at Partition of Babylon Grain trade The grain trade refers to

4508-433: The early 21st century, during the 2007–2008 world food price crisis and 2022 food crises , have had major negative effects on grain prices globally. Climate change is expected to create major agricultural failures , that will continue to create volatile food price markets especially for bulk goods like grains. Protection against international market prices has been an important part of how some countries have responded to

4600-501: The empire. Affecting his escape from Nora through trickery, Eumenes raised a small army and fled south into Cilicia. Antigonus did not move against Eumenes directly because he was tied up in northwestern Asia Minor campaigning against Cleitus the White who had a large fleet at the Hellespont. Cleitus was able to defeat Antigonus's admiral Nicanor in a sea battle but he was caught off guard

4692-451: The erstwhile empire of Alexander nor each other. Instead, these kings established a troubled (and in the end failed) modus vivendi with each other, and accepted their kingdoms as separate realms. Meanwhile, Antigonus's surviving son Demetrius took control of Macedonia in 294 BC. Antigonus's descendants held this possession, off and on, until it was conquered by the Roman Republic after the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. Antigonus's father

SECTION 50

#1732848898510

4784-429: The face of ever larger trucks . Modern issues affecting the grain trade include food security concerns, the increasing use of biofuels , the controversy over how to properly store and separate genetically modified and organic crops, the local food movement, the desire of developing countries to achieve market access in industrialized economies, climate change and drought shifting agricultural patterns, and

4876-603: The grain trade was divided between a few state-owned and privately owned giants. The state giants were Exportkhleb of the Soviet Union, the Canadian Wheat Board, the Australian Wheat Board, the Australian Barley Board , and so on. The largest private companies, known as the "big five", were Cargill , Continental , Louis Dreyfus , Bunge , and Andre, an older European company not to be confused with

4968-612: The idea of gathering support in the upper satrapies . Eumenes gained the support of Amphimachos, the satrap of Mesopotamia, then marched his army into Northern Babylonia , where he put them into winter quarters. During the winter he negotiated with Seleucus , the satrap of Babylonia, and Peithon , the satrap of Media, seeking their help against Antigonus. Antigonus, finding out Eumenes had left his provinces, took some time securing Cilicia and northern Syria before he marched into Mesopotamia. Unable to sway Seleucus and Pheiton, Eumenes had left his winter quarters early and marched on Susa ,

5060-495: The interests of its members, but to the advantage of a powerful patron". The exact membership of the League can not be determined with accuracy, but it certainly comprised Mykonos , Kythnos , Keos , and probably also Ios under Antigonus, while Naxos , Andros , Amorgos , and Paros are also attested under the Ptolemies. It is possible, but unlikely, that Samos and others of the Southern Sporades were also members during

5152-1008: The large trading companies. By contrast, in 1980, the US government attempted to use its food power to punish the Soviet Union for its invasion of Afghanistan with an embargo on grain exports . This was seen as a failure in terms of foreign policy (the Soviets made up the deficit on the international market), and negatively impacted American farmers. Since the Second World War, the trend in North America has been toward further consolidation of already vast farms. Transportation infrastructure has also promoted more economies of scale . Railways have switched from coal to diesel fuel, and introduced hopper car to carry more mass with less effort. The old wooden grain elevators have been replaced by massive concrete inland terminals, and rail transportation has retreated in

5244-457: The local and international trade in cereals such as wheat , barley , maize , and rice , and other food grains . Grain is an important trade item because it is easily stored and transported with limited spoilage, unlike other agricultural products. Healthy grain supply and trade is important to many societies, providing a caloric base for most food systems as well as important role in animal feed for animal agriculture . The grain trade

5336-549: The major battle that was about to be fought at Issus. After the Battle of Issus , he succeeded the Achaemenid satrap of Greater Phrygia, Atizyes , who had died during the battle. Antigonus successfully performed his primary responsibility: to defend Alexander's lines of supply and communication during the latter's extended campaign against the Achaemenid Persian Empire . Following Alexander's victory at Issus , part of

5428-418: The member states' contributions, command the League military, and safeguard shipping in the Aegean. Only a handful are known by name: Apollodorus, son of Apollonius of Cyzicus, who was nēsiarchos sometime before 279, perhaps during the last years of Antigonid control; Bakchon, nēsiarchos in c.  279–276 ; and Hermias, possibly from Halicarnassus , attested only once in 267. Under Rhodian hegemony, he

5520-477: The middle of the 3rd century BC. The last documents pertaining to the League date approximately to the second quarter of the century; no nēsiarchos is attested after c.  260 BC , and the number of Ptolemaic offerings to Delos also drops off sharply at the same time. This indicates that the League collapsed, and the Ptolemies lost control of the Aegean, either during the Chremonidean War (268/7–261) or

5612-449: The more recent André Maggi Group from Brazil. In 1972, the Soviet Union's wheat crop failed. To prevent shortages in their country, Soviet authorities were able to buy most of the surplus American harvest through private companies without the knowledge of the United States government. This drove up prices across the world, and was dubbed the " great grain robbery " by critics, leading to greater public attention being paid by Americans to

SECTION 60

#1732848898510

5704-490: The most powerful of the Diadochi , ruling over Greece, Asia Minor , Syria , Phoenicia and northern Mesopotamia . Cassander , Seleucus , Ptolemy and Lysimachus formed a coalition against him, which culminated in his decisive defeat and death at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. His kingdom was divided up by Lysimachus and Seleucus, but his son Demetrius survived and went on to seize control of Macedonia in 294 BC. Antigonus

5796-523: The next morning when Antigonus and Nicanor launched a double assault by land and sea on his camp, Cleitus was taken completely by surprise and his entire force was captured or killed (see: Battle of Byzantium ). Meanwhile, Eumenes had taken control of Cilicia, Syria and Phoenicia, formed an alliance with Antigenes and Teutamos, the commanders of the Silver Shields and the Hypaspists , and begun to raise

5888-431: The overseers (ἐπιμεληταὶ, epimelētai ) for the festivals and the sacrifices to Ptolemy Soter and Ptolemy Philadelphos, as well as arbitrators for judicial disputes between member states. The nēsiarchos was appointed by the League's suzerain king, and, again in contrast to most other such leagues, was not an islander. He wielded executive power and was responsible for carrying out the synedrion ' s decisions, collect

5980-400: The place, while he himself marched after Eumenes. At the river Kopratas, Eumenes surprised Antigonus during the crossing of the river and killed or captured 4,000 of his men. Antigonus, faced with disaster, decided to abandon the crossing and turned back northward, marching up into Media, threatening the upper satrapies. Eumenes wanted to march westward, and cut Antigonus's lines of supply, but

6072-496: The provinces (the so-called Partition of Babylon ) after Alexander's death in 323 BC, Antigonus held authority over Phrygia, Lycaonia , Pamphylia , Lycia and western Pisidia confirmed by Perdiccas , the regent of the empire. However, he incurred the enmity of Perdiccas by refusing to assist Eumenes to obtain possession of the provinces allotted to him: Paphlagonia and Cappadocia . Leonnatus had left with his army for Greece, leaving Antigonus alone to deal with Cappadocia,

6164-399: The rights of proxenia , prosodos , and asylia . In effect, this arrangement meant that "citizens of the member states enjoyed isopolity in each other's communities" (Billows). The League's centre in Antigonid and Ptolemaic times was the sacred island of Delos, where the annual festivals were held, and where the synedrion assembled—a single, and probably exceptional, convocation by

6256-551: The same amount 15 miles by land. The large cities of the time could not exist without the supplies delivered. For example, in the first three centuries AD, Rome consumed about 150,000 tons of Egyptian grain each year. During the classical age, the unification of China and the pacification of the Mediterranean basin by the Roman Empire created vast regional markets in commodities at either end of Eurasia . The grain supply to

6348-422: The satraps refused to abandon their satrapies and forced Eumenes to stay in the east. In the late summer of 316 BC, Antigonus moved southward again in the hope of bringing Eumenes to battle and ending the war quickly. Eventually the two armies in southern Media and fought in the indecisive Battle of Paraitakene . Antigonus, whose casualties were more numerous, force marched his army to safety the next night. During

6440-563: The setting up of the League's decrees on inscribed stelae in the member states. In another indication of the Leagues' federal character, the synedrion could not only require financial contributions from its members, but also punish them for non-compliance. In practice, both the League as well as the member states often had to resort to taking loans from the Sanctuary of Apollo on Delos to cover expenses. The synedrion also appears to have appointed

6532-451: The son of Antigonus, wrested part of Greece from Cassander. In 306 BC, Philip, Antigonus's youngest son, died a premature death, aged about 26–28. This was a severe blow to Antigonus, who not only lost a son, but also a general who might have been of the greatest value to him in the campaigns to come. After defeating Ptolemy at the naval Battle of Salamis in 306 BC, Demetrius conquered Cyprus . Following that victory Antigonus assumed

6624-550: The title of basileus (king) in 306 BC and reigned until his death. He was the founder of the Antigonid dynasty , which ruled over Macedonia until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 168 BC. Antigonus likely served under Philip II of Macedon . He took part in Alexander's invasion of Achaemenid Persia and was named satrap of Phrygia . After Alexander's death in 323 BC, he also received Pamphylia and Lycia in accordance with

6716-478: The title of king and bestowed the same upon his son. This was effectively a declaration by Antigonus that he now was independent from the empire. The other dynasts, Cassander, Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Seleucus, soon followed Antigonus's lead and declared themselves to be kings. Antigonus now prepared a large army and a formidable fleet, the command of which he gave to Demetrius, and hastened to attack Ptolemy in his own dominions. His invasion of Egypt , however, proved

6808-546: The traditional institutions of a Greek polis remained in force. Antigonus I Monophthalmus Antigonus I Monophthalmus ( Ancient Greek : Ἀντίγονος Μονόφθαλμος Antigonos Monophthalmos , "Antigonus the One-Eyed"; 382 – 301 BC) was a Macedonian Greek general and successor of Alexander the Great . A prominent military leader in Alexander's army, he went on to control large parts of Alexander's former empire . He assumed

6900-540: The treasure he had accumulated. His only answer was to advise the dynasts to be ready for war. Antigonus sent Aristodemus with a 1,000 talents to the Peloponnesus to raise an army there and also to make an alliance with his old enemy Polyperchon, he and Polyperchon were then to make war on Cassander, he sent an army under his nephew Polemaeus through Cappadocia to the Hellespont to keep Cassander and Lysimachus from invading Asia Minor, he himself invaded Phoenicia which

6992-580: The various breadbaskets of the world. In many parts of Europe, as serfdom was abolished, great estates were accompanied by many inefficient smallholdings , but in the newly colonized regions massive operations were available to not only great nobles, but also to the average farmer. In the United States and Canada, the Homestead Act and the Dominion Lands Act allowed pioneers on the western plains to gain tracts of 160 acres (0.65 km ) (1/4 of

7084-638: The volitility of market prices. For example, farmers in the European Union , United States and Japan are protected by agricultural subsidies . The European Union's programs are organized under the Common Agricultural Policy . The agricultural policy of the United States is demonstrated through the "farm bill" , while rice production in Japan is also protected and subsidized. Farmers in other countries has attempted to have these policies disallowed by

7176-459: The west. He seized the treasuries at Susa and entered Babylon . The governor of Babylon, Seleucus , fled to Ptolemy and entered into a league with him, Lysimachus and Cassander. In 314 BC, Antigonus received envoys from the allied dynasts Ptolemy, Cassander and Lysimachus who demanded he cede Cappadocia and Lycia to Cassander, Hellespontine Phrygia to Lysimachus, Phoenicia and Syria to Ptolemy, and Babylonia to Seleucus, and that he should share

7268-455: The winter of 316–315 BC, Antigonus tried to surprise Eumenes in Persia by marching his army across a desert and catching his enemy off guard, unfortunately, he was observed by some locals who reported it to his opponents. A few days later both armies drew up for battle. The Battle of Gabiene was as indecisive as the previous battle at Parataikene. According to Plutarch and Diodorus, Eumenes had won

7360-501: The world's grain trade in the mid-20th century. Additionally, farmers' cooperatives such the wheat pools became a popular alternative to the major grain companies. At the same time in the Soviet Union and soon after in China , disastrous collectivization programs effectively turned the world's largest farming nations into net importers of grain. By the second half of the 20th century,

7452-460: Was a nobleman named Philip. His mother's name is unknown. Antigonus had an older brother named Demetrius, a younger brother named Polemaeus, father of Polemaeus . His nephew Telesphorus may have been the son of a third brother. He also had a younger half-brother, Marsyas, from his mother's second marriage to Periander of Pella. Antigonus married to Stratonice, his older brother's widow and had two sons: Demetrius I Poliorcetes and Philip. Antigonus

7544-448: Was an exceptionally large man. His son Demetrius is described as being of "heroic stature", meaning no doubt he was a large man, but Antigonus was even taller. Besides this huge physique, he was made even more formidable in appearance because he was missing an eye, having lost it in battle (possibly at the Siege of Perinthus ). Mary Renault , in her novel Funeral Games , translates Antigonus's sobriquet into English as "One Eye". In

7636-511: Was born in Macedonia around 382 BC to a nobleman named Philip and his wife, whose name is unknown. While some sources claim that Antigonus "came from peasant or yeoman stock, [and] others that his family was linked to the Macedonian royal house [...] both seem unlikely. [...] [I]n all probability the family was socially prominent and from the Macedonian nobility." Not much is known about Antigonus's early career. He must have been an important figure in

7728-412: Was engaged in the west, Ptolemy took advantage of the situation and invaded from the south. He met Demetrius's forces at the battle of Gaza where Ptolemy won a stunning victory. After the battle, Seleucus, who was fighting for Ptolemy, made his way back to Babylonia , and soon established control over his old satrapy and went on to secure the eastern provinces against Antigonus. Seleucus's conquest led to

7820-543: Was in Cappadocia . Despite being outnumbered, Antigonus adopted a bold aggressive strategy. He eventually out-generaled and defeated Eumenes at the Battle of Orkynia , forcing him to retire to the fortress of Nora ( Greek : Νῶρα ). Leaving Eumenes under siege, Antigonus now marched on the combined forces of Alcetas , Dokimos , Attalos and Polemon near Cretopolis in Pisidia . Antigonus surprised and defeated his opponents at

7912-565: Was made the new regent of the empire and Antigonus became Strategos of Asia. Antigonus was entrusted with the command of the war against the former members of the Perdiccan faction who had been condemned at Triparadisus. Antigonus took charge of a part of the Royal Army, and after being reinforced with more reliable troops from Antipater's European army, he marched against the ex-Perdiccans Eumenes , Alketas, Domikos, Attalos and Polemon in Asia Minor. Antigonus decided to first deal with Eumenes, who

8004-492: Was marching through Mesopotamia and Cappadocia. Antigonus was obliged to recall Demetrius from Greece, where his son had recently had an indecisive encounter with Cassander in Thessaly. Now Antigonus and Demetrius moved against Lysimachus and Prepelaos. However, the army of Antigonus and Demetrius was defeated by the united forces of Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Prepelaos at the decisive Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Antigonus died during

8096-527: Was moved around locally at regular fairs . A massive expansion in the grain trade occurred when Europeans were able to bring millions of square kilometers of new land under cultivation in the Americas , Russia, and Australia, an expansion starting in the fifteenth and lasting into the twentieth century. In addition, the consolidation of farmland in Britain and Eastern Europe , and the development of railways and

8188-481: Was of the same age as Philip, and a nobleman, he almost certainly served in Philip's campaigns, possibly under Philip's brothers, ( Alexander II and Perdiccas III ). His importance at Philip's court is shown by the friendships he established with Antipater and Eumenes , two of Philip's chief lieutenants. In 334 BC, Antigonus served as the commander of the allied Greek infantry, a division of Alexander's invasion army of

8280-417: Was replaced by a Rhodian archōn "in charge of the islands and the islands' ships" ( ἐπί τε τῶν νήσων καὶ τῶν πλοίων τῶν νησιωτικῶν ). The history of the League shows a number of cases of direct intervention by the suzerain power, often irrespective of local laws. In addition, both the Ptolemies and later the Rhodians secured some islands by installing appointed governors (ἐπιστάται, epistatai ). Elsewhere

8372-399: Was thus at an end. Eumenes was placed under guard while Antigonus held a council to decide his fate. Antigonus, backed up by his son Demetrius, was inclined to spare the prisoner, but the council overruled them and Eumenes was executed. As a result, Antigonus now was in possession of the empire's Asian territories, his authority stretching from the eastern satrapies to Syria and Asia Minor in

8464-553: Was under Ptolemy's control, and besieged Tyre . The siege of Tyre took a year, and after securing Phoenicia he marched his main army into Asia Minor intent on taking out Asander (satrap of Lydia and Caria , and ally to Ptolemy and Cassander), leaving the defence of Syria and Phoenicia to his oldest son Demetrius . In 312 BC, Antigonus captured Lydia and all of Caria, and drove off Asander, he then sent his nephews Telesphorus and Polemaeus against Cassander in Greece. While Antigonus

#509490