154-588: The Second Amendment ( Amendment II ) to the United States Constitution protects the right to keep and bear arms . It was ratified on December 15, 1791, along with nine other articles of the Bill of Rights . In District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), the Supreme Court affirmed for the first time that the right belongs to individuals, for self-defense in the home, while also including, as dicta , that
308-597: A bicameral (two-house) Congress that was to be elected on a proportional basis based on state population, an elected chief executive, and an appointed judicial branch. An alternative to the Virginia Plan , known as the New Jersey Plan , also called for an elected executive but retained the legislative structure created by the Articles, a unicameral Congress where all states had one vote. On June 19, 1787, delegates rejected
462-535: A citizen of the United States for seven years, and live in the state they represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, be a citizen for nine years, and live in the state they represent. Article I, Section 8 enumerates the powers delegated to the legislature. Financially, Congress has the power to tax, borrow, pay debt and provide for the common defense and the general welfare; to regulate commerce, bankruptcies, and coin money. To regulate internal affairs, it has
616-466: A convention of state delegates in Philadelphia to propose revisions to the Articles. Unlike earlier attempts, the convention was not meant for new laws or piecemeal alterations, but for the "sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." The convention was not limited to commerce; rather, it was intended to "render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of government and
770-421: A free State; that standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided, as dangerous to liberty; and that in all cases the military should be under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power. Article 13. That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of themselves and the state; and as standing armies in the time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; And that
924-507: A grand jury in felony cases, and other parts of the Bill of Rights, as well as future court rulings and existing federal precedent, not universally guaranteed in actions by the states, would have been applied against the states automatically. In his concurring opinion, Justice Thomas criticized the Slaughter-House and Cruikshank decisions, proposing that "the right to keep and bear arms
1078-623: A major influence on the Albany Plan of Union , Benjamin Franklin's plan to create a unified government for the Thirteen Colonies , which was rejected. The Constitution includes four sections: an introductory paragraph titled Preamble, a list of seven Articles that define the government's framework, an untitled closing endorsement with the signatures of 39 framers, and 27 amendments that have been adopted under Article V (see below ). The Preamble,
1232-502: A militia thus circumstanced could ever be conquered by such a proportion of regular troops." He contrasted the federal government of the United States to the European kingdoms, which he described as "afraid to trust the people with arms", and assured that "the existence of subordinate governments ... forms a barrier against the enterprises of ambition". By January 1788, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia and Connecticut ratified
1386-520: A mixture of the standing British Army , Loyalist militia and Hessian mercenaries . Following the Revolution, the United States was governed by the Articles of Confederation . Federalists argued that this government had an unworkable division of power between Congress and the states, which caused military weakness, as the standing army was reduced to as few as 80 men. They considered it to be bad that there
1540-467: A permanent capital. North Carolina waited to ratify the Constitution until after the Bill of Rights was passed by the new Congress, and Rhode Island's ratification would only come after a threatened trade embargo. The U.S. Constitution was a federal one and was greatly influenced by the study of Magna Carta and other federations, both ancient and extant. The Due Process Clause of the Constitution
1694-415: A standing army and navy of unlimited size. Anti-federalists objected to the shift of power from the states to the federal government, but as adoption of the Constitution became more and more likely, they shifted their strategy to establishing a bill of rights that would put some limits on federal power. Modern scholars Thomas B. McAffee and Michael J. Quinlan have stated that James Madison "did not invent
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#17328476422591848-656: A tempestuous period in English politics during which two issues were major sources of conflict: the authority of the king to govern without the consent of Parliament, and the role of Catholics in a country with a staunchly Protestant majority. Ultimately, the Catholic James ;II was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution , and his successors, the Protestants William ;III and Mary II , accepted
2002-449: A vast majority of the convention forming the new state constitution; it was only natural that they would assert their efforts to form a compulsory state militia in the context of a "right" to defend themselves and the state. Articles XXV–XXVII. 25. That a well-regulated militia is the proper and natural defence of a free government. 26. That standing armies are dangerous to liberty, and ought not to be raised or kept up, without consent of
2156-572: Is a matter of interpretation as to whether they were intent on preserving the power to regulate arms to the states over the federal government (as the English Parliament had reserved for itself against the monarch) or whether it was intent on creating a new right akin to the right of others written into the Constitution (as the Supreme Court decided in Heller ). Some in the United States have preferred
2310-608: Is a privilege of American citizenship that applies to the States through the Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause ." Thirty-three amici curiae ("friends of the court") briefs for this case were filed with the Clerk of the Supreme Court. One of these briefs was filed by U.S. senators Kay Bailey Hutchison (R, TX) and Jon Tester (D, MT) and U.S. representatives Mark Souder (R, IN) and Mike Ross (D, AR) asking
2464-528: Is also declared by the same statute 1 W. & M. st.2. c.2. and is indeed a public allowance, under due restrictions, of the natural right of resistance and self-preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression . Although there is little doubt that the writers of the Second Amendment were heavily influenced by the English Bill of Rights, it
2618-450: Is essentially necessary to the safety, peace and prosperity of this kingdom," and that the current militia laws for the regulation of the militia were defective and ineffectual. Influenced by this act, in 1775 Timothy Pickering created "An Easy Plan of Discipline for a Militia". Greatly inhibited by the events surrounding Salem, Massachusetts , where the plan was printed, Pickering submitted the writing to George Washington . On May 1, 1776,
2772-564: Is interpreted, supplemented, and implemented by a large body of federal constitutional law and has influenced the constitutions of other nations. From September 5, 1774, to March 1, 1781, the Second Continental Congress , convened in Philadelphia in what today is called Independence Hall , functioned as the provisional government of the United States. Delegates to the First Continental Congress in 1774 and then
2926-481: Is no basis in constitutional law or scholarship for this view. He notes that, not only does this represent a misreading of the text of the Amendment as drafted, it stands in violation of other elements of the Constitution. Note: On May 10, 1776, Congress passed a resolution recommending that any colony with a government that was not inclined toward independence should form one that was. Virginia's Constitution lists
3080-536: Is not the best." The advocates of the Constitution were anxious to obtain unanimous support of all twelve states represented in the convention. Their accepted formula for the closing endorsement was "Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present." At the end of the convention, the proposal was agreed to by eleven state delegations and the lone remaining delegate from New York, Alexander Hamilton. Within three days of its signing on September 17, 1787,
3234-537: Is preserved in the National Archives . This is the version ratified by Delaware and used by the Supreme Court in District of Columbia v. Heller : A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. Some state-ratified versions, such as Maryland's, omitted the first or final commas: A well regulated Militia being necessary to
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#17328476422593388-438: Is that of having arms for their defence, suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law. Which is ... declared by ... statute, and is indeed a public allowance, under due restrictions, of the natural right of resistance and self-preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression." The English Bill of Rights of 1689 emerged from
3542-577: Is to be made use of when the sanctions of society and law are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression. The armed forces that won the American Revolution consisted of the standing Continental Army created by the Continental Congress , together with regular French army and naval forces and various state and regional militia units. In opposition, the British forces consisted of
3696-632: Is to receive only one compensation from the federal government. The inaugural oath is specified to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution. The president is the Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces , as well as of state militias when they are mobilized. The president makes treaties with the advice and consent of a two-thirds quorum of the Senate. To administer the federal government,
3850-572: The Commentaries on the Laws of England describing the right to have arms in England during the 18th century as a subordinate auxiliary right of the subject that was "also declared" in the English Bill of Rights. The fifth and last auxiliary right of the subject, that I shall at present mention, is that of having arms for their defence, suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law. Which
4004-562: The Slaughter-House Cases , 83 U.S. 36 (1873). Slaughter-House determined that the 14th Amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause did not apply the Bill of Rights to the actions of states (and by extension, local governments). If it had been overturned, the Selective Incorporation process may have become unnecessary, since the entire Bill of Rights, including the 2nd Amendment, would arguably be applied to
4158-747: The Due Process Clause incorporates that right against the States. While joining most of the rest of Alito's opinion, Justice Thomas, in his concurrence, concluded that the right to bear arms is incorporated only on alternative grounds, namely through the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . Alito also reaffirmed, in part of the opinion for four justices, that certain firearms restrictions mentioned in District of Columbia v. Heller are assumed permissible and not directly dealt with in this case. Such restrictions include those to "prohibit ...
4312-632: The Militia Acts of 1792 and the similar act of 1795. More recently some have advanced what has been called the insurrectionist theory of the Second Amendment whereby it is the right of any citizen to take up arms against their government should they consider it illegitimate. Such a reading has been voiced by organizations such as the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) and by various individuals including some elected officials. Congressman Jamie Raskin , however, has argued that there
4466-568: The Necessary and Proper Clause in Article One to allow Congress to enact legislation that is neither expressly allowed by the enumerated powers nor expressly denied in the limitations on Congress. In McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), the Supreme Court read the Necessary and Proper Clause to permit the federal government to take action that would "enable [it] to perform the high duties assigned to it [by
4620-484: The Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 asserted that, "the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of themselves and the state." During the 1760s pre-revolutionary period, the established colonial militia was composed of colonists, including many who were loyal to British rule . As defiance and opposition to British rule developed, a distrust of these Loyalists in the militia became widespread among
4774-493: The Second Continental Congress from 1775 to 1781 were chosen largely from the revolutionary committees of correspondence in various colonies rather than through the colonial governments of the Thirteen Colonies . The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States. The document was drafted by a committee appointed by the Second Continental Congress in mid-June 1777 and
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4928-578: The State of the Union , and by the Recommendation Clause , recommends "necessary and expedient" national measures. The president may convene and adjourn Congress under special circumstances. Section 4 provides for the removal of the president and other federal officers. The president is removed on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Article III describes
5082-585: The Virginia Declaration of Rights were incorporated into the Bill of Rights. Upon the arrival of the American Revolution, many of the rights guaranteed by the Federal Bill of Rights were recognized as being inspired by English law. A substantial body of thought had been developed from the literature of republicanism in the United States , typically demonstrated by the works of John Adams , who often quoted Blackstone and Montesquieu verbatim, and applied to
5236-466: The court system (the judicial branch ), including the Supreme Court . The article describes the kinds of cases the court takes as original jurisdiction . Congress can create lower courts and an appeals process and enacts law defining crimes and punishments. Article Three also protects the right to trial by jury in all criminal cases , and defines the crime of treason . McDonald v. Chicago McDonald v. City of Chicago , 561 U.S. 742 (2010),
5390-539: The egalitarian character of the American people. In a 1787 letter to John Rutledge , Jefferson asserted that "The only condition on earth to be compared with [American government] ... is that of the Indians, where they still have less law than we." American Indian history scholars Donald Grinde and Bruce Johansen claim there is "overwhelming evidence" that Iroquois Confederacy political concepts and ideas influenced
5544-430: The president and subordinate officers ( Article II ); and the judicial , consisting of the Supreme Court and other federal courts ( Article III ). Article IV , Article V , and Article VI embody concepts of federalism , describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments , the states in relationship to the federal government, and the shared process of constitutional amendment. Article VII establishes
5698-430: The "rights" argument arguing that the English Bill of Rights had granted a right. The need to have arms for self-defence was not really in question. Peoples all around the world since time immemorial had armed themselves for the protection of themselves and others, and as organized nations began to appear these arrangements had been extended to the protection of the state. Without a regular army and police force, it had been
5852-534: The 74 delegates appointed by the states, 55 attended. The delegates were generally convinced that an effective central government with a wide range of enforceable powers must replace the weaker Congress established by the Articles of Confederation. Two plans for structuring the federal government arose at the convention's outset: On May 31, the Convention devolved into the Committee of the Whole , charged with considering
6006-545: The Confederation had "virtually ceased trying to govern." The vision of a respectable nation among nations seemed to be fading in the eyes of revolutionaries such as George Washington , Benjamin Franklin , and Rufus King . Their dream of a republic , a nation without hereditary rulers, with power derived from the people in frequent elections, was in doubt. On February 21, 1787, the Confederation Congress called
6160-455: The Congress passed laws prohibiting states from arming citizens, or prohibiting citizens from arming themselves. Though it has been argued that the states lost the power to arm their citizens when the power to arm the militia was transferred from the states to the federal government by Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, the individual right to arm was retained and strengthened by
6314-557: The Constitution was submitted to the Congress of the Confederation , then sitting in New York City, the nation's temporary capital. The document, originally intended as a revision of the Articles of Confederation, instead introduced a completely new form of government. While members of Congress had the power to reject it, they voted unanimously on September 28 to forward the proposal to the thirteen states for their ratification . Under
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6468-468: The Constitution without insisting upon amendments. Several amendments were proposed, but were not adopted at the time the Constitution was ratified. For example, the Pennsylvania convention debated fifteen amendments, one of which concerned the right of the people to be armed, another with the militia. The Massachusetts convention also ratified the Constitution with an attached list of proposed amendments. In
6622-592: The Constitution's introductory paragraph, lays out the purposes of the new government: We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. The opening words, " We
6776-761: The Constitution, the Federalists , and the other opposing it, the so-called Anti-Federalists . Over the ensuing months, the proposal was debated, criticized, and expounded upon clause by clause. In the state of New York , at the time a hotbed of anti-Federalism, three delegates from the Philadelphia Convention who were also members of the Congress— Hamilton , Madison , and Jay —published a series of commentaries, now known as The Federalist Papers , in support of ratification. Before year's end, three state legislatures voted in favor of ratification. Delaware
6930-502: The Constitution] in the manner most beneficial to the people," even if that action is not itself within the enumerated powers. Chief Justice Marshall clarified: "Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are Constitutional." Article II describes
7084-651: The Constitutional Convention. Prior to and during the framing and signing of the Constitution, Blackstone , Hume , Locke and Montesquieu were among the political philosophers most frequently referred to. Historian Herbert W. Schneider held that the Scottish Enlightenment was "probably the most potent single tradition in the American Enlightenment" and the advancement of personal liberties. Historian Jack P. Greene maintains that by 1776
7238-604: The Crown and was not the granting of a new right to have arms. The text of the English Bill of Rights of 1689 includes language protecting the right of Protestants against disarmament by the Crown , stating: "That the Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defence suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law." It also contained text that aspired to bind future Parliaments, though under English constitutional law no Parliament can bind any later Parliament. The statement in
7392-458: The English Bill of Rights concerning the right to bear arms is often quoted only in the passage where it is written as above and not in its full context. In its full context it is clear that the bill was asserting the right of Protestant citizens not to be disarmed by the king without the consent of Parliament and was merely restoring rights to Protestants that the previous King briefly and unlawfully had removed. In its full context it reads: Whereas
7546-423: The English Bill of Rights created a new right to have arms, which developed out of a duty to have arms. In District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), the Supreme Court did not accept this view, remarking that the English right at the time of the passing of the English Bill of Rights was "clearly an individual right, having nothing whatsoever to do with service in the militia" and that it was a right not to be disarmed by
7700-509: The Government to form an army of any magnitude, that army can never be formidable to the liberties of the People, while there is a large body of citizens, little, if at all, inferior to them in discipline and the use of arms, who stand ready to defend their own rights, and those of their fellow-citizens. This appears to me the only substitute that can be devised for a standing army, and the best possible security against it, if it should exist. There
7854-599: The Illinois State Rifle Association sponsored the litigation on behalf of several Chicago residents, including retiree Otis McDonald. The oral arguments took place on March 2, 2010. On June 28, 2010, the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, reversed the Seventh Circuit's decision, holding that the Second Amendment was incorporated under the Fourteenth Amendment, thus protecting those rights from infringement by state and local governments. It then remanded
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#17328476422598008-651: The Iroquois influence thesis is largely the product of "white interpretations of Indians" and "scholarly misapprehension". John Napoleon Brinton Hewitt , who was born on the Tuscarora Indian Reservation , and was an ethnologist at the Smithsonian Institution 's Bureau of Ethnology is often cited by historians of Iroquois history. Hewitt, however, rejected the idea that the Iroquois League had
8162-580: The Law of Nations, to declare war and make rules of war. The final Necessary and Proper Clause , also known as the Elastic Clause, expressly confers incidental powers upon Congress without the Articles' requirement for express delegation for each and every power. Article I, Section 9 lists eight specific limits on congressional power. The Supreme Court has sometimes broadly interpreted the Commerce Clause and
8316-482: The Laws of England are considered the most influential books on law in the new republic. Madison made frequent reference to Blackstone, Locke, and Montesquieu, all of whom were among the most prominent political theorists of the late eighteenth century. Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, British political philosopher John Locke was a major influence, expanding on the contract theory of government advanced by Thomas Hobbes , his contemporary. Locke advanced
8470-548: The Legislature. 27. That in all cases, and at all times, the military ought to be under strict subordination to and control of the civil power. A Declaration of Rights. Article XVII. That the people have a right to bear arms, for the defence of the State; and, as standing armies, in time of peace, are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; and that the military should be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by,
8624-690: The Massachusetts Bay Councell resolved that Pickering's discipline, a modification of the 1757 act, be the discipline of their Militia. On March 29, 1779, for members of the Continental Army this was replaced by Von Steuben's Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States . With ratification of the Second Amendment, after May 8, 1792, the entire United States Militia, barring two declarations, would be regulated by Von Steuben's Discipline. King Charles I authorized
8778-620: The NRA and Paul Helmke of the Brady Center both agreed that the Court's ruling ruled out bans on handguns which are to be used for "lawful purposes" such as self-protection in the home. But as to the general question of gun laws not covered in McDonald , a large number of lawsuits are needed to determine whether any other existing State gun regulations might also be unconstitutional. McDonald, supra., stated that
8932-419: The New Jersey Plan with three states voting in favor, seven against, and one divided. The plan's defeat led to a series of compromises centering primarily on two issues: slavery and proportional representation. The first of these pitted Northern states, where slavery was slowly being abolished, against Southern states, whose agricultural economies depended on slave labor. The issue of proportional representation
9086-404: The People ", represented a new thought: the idea that the people and not the states were the source of the government's legitimacy. Coined by Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania, who chaired the convention's Committee of Style, the phrase is considered an improvement on the section's original draft which followed the words We the People with a list of the 13 states. In place of the names of
9240-425: The Revolution clearly aimed to prevent coordinated action by the Patriot militia, some have argued that there is no evidence that the British sought to restrict the traditional common law right of self-defense. Patrick J. Charles disputes these claims citing similar disarming by the patriots and challenging those scholars' interpretation of Blackstone. The right of the colonists to arms and rebellion against oppression
9394-462: The Senate (with each state's legislators generally choosing their respective senators), and that all money bills would originate in the House. The Great Compromise ended the stalemate between patriots and nationalists, leading to numerous other compromises in a spirit of accommodation. There were sectional interests to be balanced by the Three-Fifths Compromise ; reconciliation on Presidential term, powers, and method of selection; and jurisdiction of
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#17328476422599548-423: The State; and as standing armies, in the time of peace, are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; and that the military should be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power. United States Constitution [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States . It superseded the Articles of Confederation ,
9702-417: The Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defense suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law. The historical link between the English Bill of Rights and the Second Amendment, which both codify an existing right and do not create a new one, has been acknowledged by the U.S. Supreme Court. The English Bill of Rights includes the proviso that arms must be as "allowed by law". This has been
9856-485: The Supreme Court handed down a landmark decision that held the amendment protects an individual's right to keep a gun for self-defense. This was the first time the Court had ruled that the Second Amendment guarantees an individual's right to own a gun. In McDonald v. Chicago (2010), the Supreme Court clarified that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment incorporated the Second Amendment against state and local governments. In Caetano v. Massachusetts (2016),
10010-472: The Supreme Court reiterated its earlier rulings that "the Second Amendment extends, prima facie, to all instruments that constitute bearable arms, even those that were not in existence at the time of the founding" and that its protection is not limited to "only those weapons useful in warfare". In addition to affirming the right to carry firearms in public, NYSRPA v. Bruen (2022) created a new test that laws seeking to limit Second Amendment rights must be based on
10164-410: The Supreme Court stated "that the right to keep and bear arms is among the "fundamental rights necessary to our system of ordered liberty." McDonald v. Chicago , 561 U. S. 742, 778 (2010)." The majority agreed that the Fourteenth Amendment incorporates the Second Amendment right recognized in Heller , but was split on the rationale. Writing for four members of the court, Justice Alito found that
10318-434: The Supreme Court to find in favor of the petitioners and rule that the Second Amendment does apply to the states. The brief was signed by 58 senators and 251 representatives, more members of Congress than any amicus curiae brief in history. Moreover, thirty-two states under the aegis of Texas (and California independently) also filed amici curiae . In People v. Aguilar (2013), the Illinois Supreme Court summed up
10472-502: The U.S. Constitution , and are considered to be the most outspoken supporters of the Iroquois thesis. The idea as to the extent of that influence on the founding, however, varies among historians and has been questioned or criticized by various historians, including Samuel Payne, William Starna, George Hamell, and historian and archaeologist Philip Levy , who claims the evidence is largely coincidental and circumstantial. The most outspoken critic, anthropologist Elisabeth Tooker , claimed
10626-469: The Union together and aided the Constitution's ratification, slavery continued for six more decades and the less populous states continue to have disproportional representation in the U.S. Senate and Electoral College . Since the Constitution became operational in 1789, it has been amended 27 times. The first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights , offer specific protections of individual liberty and justice and place restrictions on
10780-429: The Virginia Plan. On June 13, the Virginia resolutions in amended form were reported out of committee. The New Jersey Plan was put forward in response to the Virginia Plan. A Committee of Eleven, including one delegate from each state represented, met from July 2 to 16 to work out a compromise on the issue of representation in the federal legislature. All agreed to a republican form of government grounded in representing
10934-448: The case back to the Seventh Circuit to resolve conflicts between certain Chicago gun restrictions and the Second Amendment. In McDonald v. City of Chicago , Chicago resident Otis McDonald, a 76-year-old retired maintenance engineer, had lived in the Morgan Park neighborhood since buying a house there in 1971. McDonald described the decline of his neighborhood and claimed it was being taken over by gangs and drug dealers . His lawn
11088-534: The case before and after the passage of the Bill. While it did not override earlier restrictions on the ownership of guns for hunting, it is subject to the parliamentary right to implicitly or explicitly repeal earlier enactments. There is some difference of opinion as to how revolutionary the events of 1688–89 actually were, and several commentators make the point that the provisions of the English Bill of Rights did not represent new laws, but rather stated existing rights. Mark Thompson wrote that, apart from determining
11242-448: The central Second Amendment findings in McDonald : Two years later, in McDonald v. City of Chicago , 561 U.S. ___, ___, 130 S. Ct. 3020, 3050 (2010), the Supreme Court held that the second amendment right recognized in Heller is fully applicable to the states through the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment. In so holding, the Court reiterated that "the Second Amendment protects
11396-606: The change of monarch) ... thereupon the said Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons pursuant to their respective Letters and Elections being now assembled in a full and free Representative of this Nation taking into their most serious Consideration the best means for attaining the Ends aforesaid Doe in the first place (as their Ancestors in like Case have usually done) for the Vindicating and Asserting their ancient Rights and Liberties, Declare (list of rights including) ... That
11550-414: The city be registered but its refusal of all handgun registrations since 1982, when a citywide handgun ban was passed, made him unable to own a handgun legally. As a result, he joined three other Chicago residents in 2008 in filing a lawsuit that became McDonald v. City of Chicago . Despite being consolidated at the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, the cases are different in scope in terms of
11704-403: The civil power. Article XL. And whereas it is of the utmost importance to the safety of every State that it should always be in a condition of defence; and it is the duty of every man who enjoys the protection of society to be prepared and willing to defend it; this convention therefore, in the name and by the authority of the good people of this State, doth ordain, determine, and declare that
11858-401: The close of these discussions, on September 8, a Committee of Style and Arrangement, including Alexander Hamilton from New York , William Samuel Johnson from Connecticut , Rufus King from Massachusetts , James Madison from Virginia, and Gouverneur Morris from Pennsylvania, was appointed to distill a final draft constitution from the 23 approved articles. The final draft, presented to
12012-613: The colonists known as Patriots , who favored independence from British rule. As a result, some Patriots created their own militias that excluded the Loyalists and then sought to stock independent armories for their militias. In response to this arms build-up, the British Parliament established an embargo of firearms, parts and ammunition against the American colonies which in some instance came to be referred to as Powder Alarms . King George III also began disarming individuals who were in
12166-404: The concept of ordered liberty" or "deeply rooted in our nation's history and traditions" as defined most recently in the Supreme Court case Duncan v. Louisiana , 391 U.S. 145 (1968). In addition to claiming the Second Amendment should be incorporated through the selective incorporation process, McDonald is unique among post-Heller gun cases in that it asked the court to overturn
12320-461: The conditions that were codified in the bill. One of the issues the bill resolved was the authority of the king to disarm his subjects, after James II had disarmed many Protestants that were "suspected or knowne" of disliking the government, and had argued with Parliament over his desire to maintain a standing (or permanent) army. The bill states that it is acting to restore "ancient rights" trampled upon by James II, though some have argued that
12474-420: The convention on September 12, contained seven articles, a preamble and a closing endorsement , of which Morris was the primary author. The committee also presented a proposed letter to accompany the constitution when delivered to Congress. The final document, engrossed by Jacob Shallus , was taken up on Monday, September 17, at the convention's final session. Several of the delegates were disappointed in
12628-466: The convention were chosen by the state legislatures of 12 of the 13 original states ; Rhode Island refused to send delegates. The convention's initial mandate was limited to amending the Articles of Confederation, which had proven highly ineffective in meeting the young nation's needs. Almost immediately, however, delegates began considering measures to replace the Articles. The first proposal discussed, introduced by delegates from Virginia , called for
12782-970: The creation of state constitutions . While the ideas of unalienable rights, the separation of powers and the structure of the Constitution were largely influenced by the European Enlightenment thinkers, like Montesquieu , John Locke and others, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson still had reservations about the existing forms of government in Europe. In a speech at the Constitutional Convention Franklin stated, "We have gone back to ancient history for models of Government, and examined different forms of those Republics ... And we have viewed modern States all round Europe but find none of their Constitutions suitable to our circumstances." Jefferson maintained, that most European governments were autocratic monarchies and not compatible with
12936-439: The duty of certain men to keep watch and ward at night and to confront and capture suspicious persons. Every subject had an obligation to protect the king's peace and assist in the suppression of riots. In 1757 Great Britain's Parliament created "An Act for better ordering of the militia forces in the several counties of that part of Great Britain called England". This act declared that "a well-ordered and well-disciplined militia
13090-543: The end, the ratification convention was so evenly divided between those for and against the Constitution that the federalists agreed to the Bill of Rights to assure ratification. In United States v. Cruikshank (1876), the Supreme Court ruled that, "The right to bear arms is not granted by the Constitution; neither is it in any manner dependent upon that instrument for its existence. The Second Amendments [ sic ] means no more than that it shall not be infringed by Congress, and has no other effect than to restrict
13244-418: The federal judiciary. On July 24, a Committee of Detail , including John Rutledge (South Carolina), Edmund Randolph (Virginia), Nathaniel Gorham (Massachusetts), Oliver Ellsworth (Connecticut), and James Wilson (Pennsylvania), was elected to draft a detailed constitution reflective of the resolutions passed by the convention up to that point. The Convention recessed from July 26 to August 6 to await
13398-433: The first senators and representatives, the first Wednesday of January (January 7, 1789); electing the first president, the first Wednesday of February (February 4); and officially starting the new government, the first Wednesday of March (March 4), when the first Congress would convene in New York City. As its final act, the Congress of Confederation agreed to purchase 10 square miles from Maryland and Virginia for establishing
13552-480: The focus of each Article remains the same as when adopted in 1787. Article I describes the Congress , the legislative branch of the federal government. Section 1 reads, "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives ." The article establishes the manner of election and the qualifications of members of each body. Representatives must be at least 25 years old, be
13706-415: The founders drew heavily upon Magna Carta and the later writings of "Enlightenment rationalism" and English common law . Historian Daniel Walker Howe notes that Benjamin Franklin greatly admired David Hume , an eighteenth-century Scottish philosopher, and had studied many of his works while at Edinburgh in 1760. Both embraced the idea that high-ranking public officials should receive no salary and that
13860-637: The government, and some paid nothing. A few states did meet the interest payments toward the national debt owed by their citizens, but nothing greater, and no interest was paid on debts owed foreign governments. By 1786, the United States was facing default on its outstanding debts. Under the Articles, the United States had little ability to defend its sovereignty. Most of the troops in the nation's 625-man army were deployed facing non-threatening British forts on American soil. Soldiers were not being paid, some were deserting, and others were threatening mutiny. Spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, despite
14014-497: The history and tradition of gun rights, although the test was refined to focus on similar analogues and general principles rather than strict matches from the past in United States v. Rahimi (2024). The debate between various organizations regarding gun control and gun rights continues. There are several versions of the text of the Second Amendment, each with capitalization or punctuation differences. Differences exist between
14168-460: The idea of separation had for its purpose the even distribution of authority among the several branches of government. The English Bill of Rights (1689) was an inspiration for the American Bill of Rights. Both require jury trials , contain a right to keep and bear arms , prohibit excessive bail and forbid " cruel and unusual punishments ". Many liberties protected by state constitutions and
14322-445: The incubus of a hierarchical system." The non-Quaker residents, many from the western Counties, complained often and loudly of being denied the right to a common defense. By the time of the American Revolution, through what could be described as a revolution within a revolution, the pro-militia factions had gained ascendancy in the state's government. And by a manipulation through the use of oaths, disqualifying Quaker members, they made up
14476-589: The late King James the Second by the Assistance of diverse evil Councillors Judges and Ministers employed by him did endeavour to subvert and extirpate the Protestant Religion and the Laws and Liberties of this Kingdom (list of grievances including) ... by causing several good Subjects being Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when Papists were both Armed and employed contrary to Law, (Recital regarding
14630-680: The lower class was a better judge of character when it came to choosing their representatives. In his Institutes of the Lawes of England , Coke interpreted Magna Carta protections and rights to apply not just to nobles, but to all British subjects. In writing the Virginia Charter of 1606 , he enabled the King in Parliament to give those to be born in the colonies all rights and liberties as though they were born in England. William Blackstone's Commentaries on
14784-413: The military should be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power. This is the first instance in relationship to U.S. Constitutional Law of the phrase "right to bear arms". Article 43. The inhabitants of this state shall have the liberty to fowl and hunt in seasonable times on the lands they hold, and on all other lands therein not inclosed; It is relevant that Pennsylvania
14938-416: The militia of this State, at all times hereafter, as well in peace as in war, shall be armed and disciplined, and in readiness for service. That all such of the inhabitants of this State being of the people called Quakers as, from scruples of conscience, may be averse to the bearing of arms, be therefrom excused by the legislature; and do pay to the State such sums of money, in lieu of their personal service, as
15092-636: The most rebellious areas in the 1760s and 1770s. British and Loyalist efforts to disarm the colonial Patriot militia armories in the early phases of the American Revolution resulted in the Patriot colonists protesting by citing the Declaration of Right , Blackstone's summary of the Declaration of Right, their own militia laws and common law rights to self-defense . While British policy in the early phases of
15246-415: The nation's first constitution , on March 4, 1789. Originally including seven articles, the Constitution delineates the frame of the federal government . The Constitution's first three articles embody the doctrine of the separation of powers , in which the federal government is divided into three branches: the legislative , consisting of the bicameral Congress ( Article I ); the executive , consisting of
15400-457: The need for balanced forces pushing against each other to prevent tyranny (reflecting the influence of Polybius 's 2nd century BC treatise on the checks and balances of the Roman Republic ). In his The Spirit of Law , Montesquieu maintained that the separation of state powers should be by its service to the people's liberty: legislative, executive and judicial, while also emphasizing that
15554-574: The newly formed states. Despite these limitations, based on the Congressional authority granted in Article 9, the league of states was considered as strong as any similar republican confederation ever formed. The chief problem was, in the words of George Washington , "no money." The Confederated Congress could print money, but it was worthless, and while the Congress could borrow money, it could not pay it back. No state paid its share of taxes to support
15708-521: The office, qualifications, and duties of the President of the United States and the Vice President . The President is head of the executive branch of the federal government , as well as the nation's head of state and head of government . Article two is modified by the 12th Amendment , which tacitly acknowledges political parties, and the 25th Amendment relating to office succession. The president
15862-589: The people in the states. For the legislature, two issues were to be decided: how the votes were to be allocated among the states in the Congress, and how the representatives should be elected. In its report, now known as the Connecticut Compromise (or "Great Compromise"), the committee proposed proportional representation for seats in the House of Representatives based on population (with the people voting for representatives), and equal representation for each State in
16016-452: The people, the states and the nation, as Alexander Hamilton explained in his " Concerning the Militia " essay published in 1788: ... it will be possible to have an excellent body of well-trained militia, ready to take the field whenever the defence of the State shall require it. This will not only lessen the call for military establishments, but if circumstances should at any time oblige
16170-424: The plaintiffs: All of the post- Heller cases, including McDonald , NRA v. Chicago , Nordyke and Maloney , argued that the Second Amendment, in addition to applying to federal jurisdictions, should also be applied against state and local governments, using a judicial process called selective incorporation . Selective incorporation involves convincing the court that a right is "fundamental" by being "implicit in
16324-484: The possession of firearms by felons or mentally ill" and "laws forbidding the carrying of firearms in sensitive places such as schools and government buildings, or laws imposing conditions and qualifications on the commercial sale of arms." Justice Stevens wrote a lengthy dissenting opinion. Among his disagreements with the majority was the statement that incorporation was not at issue in this case. Citing Cruikshank , Stevens wrote, "The so-called incorporation question
16478-407: The power to regulate and govern military forces and militias , suppress insurrections and repel invasions. It is to provide for naturalization, standards of weights and measures, post offices and roads, and patents; to directly govern the federal district and cessions of land by the states for forts and arsenals. Internationally, Congress has the power to define and punish piracies and offenses against
16632-563: The powers of government within the U.S. states. The majority of the 17 later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures. Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. The original U.S. Constitution was handwritten on five pages of parchment by Jacob Shallus . The first permanent constitution, it
16786-476: The powers of the National Government." In United States v. Miller (1939), the Supreme Court ruled that the Second Amendment did not protect weapon types not having a "reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia". In the 21st century, the amendment has been subjected to renewed academic inquiry and judicial interest . In District of Columbia v. Heller (2008),
16940-479: The preservation of the Union." The proposal might take effect when approved by Congress and the states. On the appointed day, May 14, 1787, only the Virginia and Pennsylvania delegations were present, and the convention's opening meeting was postponed for lack of a quorum. A quorum of seven states met on May 25, and deliberations began. Eventually 12 states were represented, with Rhode Island refusing to participate. Of
17094-418: The president commissions all the offices of the federal government as Congress directs; and may require the opinions of its principal officers and make " recess appointments " for vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate. The president ensures the laws are faithfully executed and may grant reprieves and pardons with the exception of Congressional impeachment . The president reports to Congress on
17248-523: The principle of consent of the governed in his Two Treatises of Government . Government's duty under a social contract among the sovereign people was to serve the people by protecting their rights. These basic rights were life, liberty, and property . Montesquieu's influence on the framers is evident in Madison's Federalist No. 47 and Hamilton's Federalist No. 78 . Jefferson, Adams, and Mason were known to read Montesquieu. Supreme Court Justices ,
17402-504: The procedure subsequently used by the 13 states to ratify it. The Constitution of the United States is the oldest and longest-standing written and codified national constitution in force in the world. The drafting of the Constitution , often referred to as its framing, was completed at the Constitutional Convention , which assembled at Independence Hall in Philadelphia between May 25 and September 17, 1787. Delegates to
17556-495: The process outlined in Article VII of the proposed Constitution, the state legislatures were tasked with organizing "Federal Conventions" to ratify the document. This process ignored the amendment provision of the Articles of Confederation which required unanimous approval of all the states. Instead, Article VII called for ratification by just nine of the 13 states—a two-thirds majority. Two factions soon emerged, one supporting
17710-498: The prospect of defeat, the Federalists relented, promising that if the Constitution was adopted, amendments would be added to secure individual liberties. With that, the anti-Federalists' position collapsed. On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify. Three months later, on September 17, the Congress of the Confederation certified the ratification of eleven states, and passed resolutions setting dates for choosing
17864-523: The protests of U.S. officials. When Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay toward ransom. If a military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the diverse sentiments and interests of the various states. Although the Treaty of Paris in 1783
18018-488: The purpose of representation in the federal government, and by requiring the return of escaped slaves to their owners, even if captured in states where slavery had been abolished. Finally, the delegates adopted the Connecticut Compromise , which proposed a Congress with proportional representation in the lower house and equal representation in the upper house (the Senate) giving each state two senators. While these compromises held
18172-403: The reasons for dissolving its ties with the King in the formation of its own independent state government. Including the following: * These same reasons would later be outlined within the Declaration of Independence . A Declaration of Rights. Section 13. That a well-regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence of
18326-425: The report of this "Committee of Detail". Overall, the report of the committee conformed to the resolutions adopted by the convention, adding some elements. A twenty-three article (plus preamble) constitution was presented. From August 6 to September 10, the report of the committee of detail was discussed, section by section and clause by clause. Details were attended to, and further compromises were effected. Toward
18480-442: The result, a makeshift series of unfortunate compromises. Some delegates left before the ceremony and three others refused to sign. Of the thirty-nine signers, Benjamin Franklin summed up, addressing the convention: "There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them." He would accept the Constitution, "because I expect no better and because I am not sure that it
18634-532: The right is not unlimited and does not preclude the existence of certain long-standing prohibitions such as those forbidding "the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill" or restrictions on "the carrying of dangerous and unusual weapons". In McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010) the Supreme Court ruled that state and local governments are limited to the same extent as the federal government from infringing upon this right. New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen (2022) assured
18788-483: The right to carry weapons in public spaces with reasonable exceptions. The Second Amendment was based partially on the right to keep and bear arms in English common law and was influenced by the English Bill of Rights of 1689 . Sir William Blackstone described this right as an auxiliary right, supporting the natural rights of self-defense and resistance to oppression, and the civic duty to act in concert in defense of
18942-474: The right to keep and bear arms for the purpose of self-defense" ( id . at ___, 130 S. Ct. at 3026); that "individual self-defense is 'the central component' of the Second Amendment right" (emphasis in original) ( id . at ___, 130 S. Ct. at 3036 (quoting Heller, 554 U.S. at 599)); and that "[s]elf-defense is a basic right, recognized by many legal systems from ancient times to the present day" ( id . at ___, 130 S. Ct. at 3036). In United States v. Rahimi (2024)
19096-437: The right to keep and bear arms when he drafted the Second Amendment; the right was pre-existing at both common law and in the early state constitutions." In contrast, historian Jack Rakove suggests that Madison's intention in framing the Second Amendment was to provide assurances to moderate Anti-Federalists that the militias would not be disarmed. One aspect of the gun control debate is the conflict between gun control laws and
19250-447: The right to rebel against unjust governments. Blackstone in his Commentaries alluded to this right to rebel as the natural right of resistance and self preservation, to be used only as a last resort, exercisable when "the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression". Some believe that the framers of the Bill of Rights sought to balance not just political power, but also military power, between
19404-417: The same; may, in the judgment of the legislature, be worth. And that a proper magazine of warlike stores, proportionate to the number of inhabitants, be, forever hereafter, at the expense of this State, and by acts of the legislature, established, maintained, and continued in every county in this State. Chapter 1. Section XVIII. That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of the themselves and
19558-462: The security of a free State the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed. The right of Protestants to bear arms in English history is regarded in English common law as a subordinate auxiliary right of the primary rights to personal security, personal liberty, and private property. According to Sir William Blackstone , "The ... last auxiliary right of the subject ...
19712-523: The security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. The ratification acts from New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and South Carolina contained only one comma, but with differences in capitalization. Pennsylvania's act states: A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed. The ratification act from New Jersey has no commas: A well regulated Militia being necessary to
19866-452: The specific regulations challenged and the legal argument for applying the Second Amendment against state and local governments. The Second Amendment Foundation brought the McDonald case to the Supreme Court with its lead attorney Alan Gura. The cases were appealed separately to the U.S. Supreme Court. McDonald challenged four broad aspects of Chicago's gun registration law, which, according to
20020-416: The spirit of the Articles. In September 1786, during an inter–state convention to discuss and develop a consensus about reversing the protectionist trade barriers that each state had erected, James Madison questioned whether the Articles of Confederation was a binding compact or even a viable government. Connecticut paid nothing and "positively refused" to pay U.S. assessments for two years. A rumor at
20174-424: The state. While both James Monroe and John Adams supported the Constitution being ratified, its most influential framer was James Madison . In Federalist No. 46 , Madison wrote how a federal army could be kept in check by the militia, "a standing army ... would be opposed [by] militia." He argued that State governments "would be able to repel the danger" of a federal army, "It may well be doubted, whether
20328-477: The states Morris substituted "of the United States" and then listed the Constitution's six goals, none of which were mentioned originally. The Constitution's main provisions include seven articles that define the basic framework of the federal government. Articles that have been amended still include the original text, although provisions repealed by amendments under Article V are usually bracketed or italicized to indicate they no longer apply. Despite these changes,
20482-405: The states. In attempting to overturn Slaughter-House , this case garnered the attention and support of both conservative and liberal legal scholars interested in its potential application in areas outside of firearms law. Their interest was that if Slaughter-House had been overturned, it would have been possible that constitutional guarantees such as the right to a jury in civil cases, right to
20636-547: The states. Initially, the Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit had upheld a Chicago ordinance banning the possession of handguns as well as other gun regulations affecting rifles and shotguns, citing United States v. Cruikshank (1876), Presser v. Illinois (1886), and Miller v. Texas (1894). The petition for certiorari was filed by Alan Gura , the attorney who had successfully argued Heller , and Chicago-area attorney David G. Sigale. The Second Amendment Foundation and
20790-420: The succession, the English Bill of Rights did "little more than set forth certain points of existing laws and simply secured to Englishmen the rights of which they were already posessed [ sic ]." Before and after the English Bill of Rights, the government could always disarm any individual or class of individuals it considered dangerous to the peace of the realm. In 1765, Sir William Blackstone wrote
20944-653: The time was that a seditious party of New York legislators had opened a conversation with the Viceroy of Canada . To the south, the British were said to be openly funding Creek Indian raids on Georgia, and the state was under martial law . Additionally, during Shays' Rebellion (August 1786 – June 1787) in Massachusetts, Congress could provide no money to support an endangered constituent state. General Benjamin Lincoln
21098-519: The ultimate interpreters of the constitution, have cited Montesquieu throughout the Court's history. (See, e.g. , Green v. Biddle , 21 U.S. 1, 1, 36 (1823). United States v. Wood , 39 U.S. 430, 438 (1840). Myers v. United States , 272 U.S. 52, 116 (1926). Nixon v. Administrator of General Services , 433 U.S. 425, 442 (1977). Bank Markazi v. Peterson , 136 U.S. 1310, 1330 (2016).) Montesquieu emphasized
21252-493: The use of arms for special defense and safety, on land and at sea, against: The Military Company of Massachusetts had already ordered munition before the authorization was signed. Early Americans had other uses for arms, besides the uses King Charles had in mind: Which of these considerations were thought of as most important and ultimately found expression in the Second Amendment is disputed. Some of these purposes were explicitly mentioned in early state constitutions; for example,
21406-418: The version passed by Congress and put on display and the versions ratified by the states. These differences have been a focus of debate regarding the meaning of the amendment, particularly regarding the importance of what the courts have called the prefatory clause. The final, handwritten original of the Bill of Rights as passed by Congress, with the rest of the original prepared by scribe William Lambert ,
21560-545: Was a landmark decision of the Supreme Court of the United States that found that the right of an individual to "keep and bear arms", as protected under the Second Amendment , is incorporated by the Fourteenth Amendment and is thereby enforceable against the states . The decision cleared up the uncertainty left in the wake of District of Columbia v. Heller (2008) as to the scope of gun rights in regard to
21714-553: Was a Quaker colony traditionally opposed to bearing arms. "In settling Pennsylvania, William Penn had a great experiment in view, a 'holy experiment', as he term[ed] it. This was no less than to test, on a scale of considerable magnitude, the practicability of founding and governing a State on the sure principles of the Christian religion; where the executive should be sustained without arms; where justice should be administered without oaths; and where real religion might flourish without
21868-481: Was a measure as prudent as it was legal: such violences are always to be apprehended from military troops, when quartered in the body of a populous city; but more especially so, when they are led to believe that they are become necessary to awe a spirit of rebellion, injuriously said to be existing therein. It is a natural right which the people have reserved to themselves, confirmed by the Bill of Rights, to keep arms for their own defence; and as Mr. Blackstone observes, it
22022-430: Was adopted by the full Congress in mid-November of that year. Ratification by the 13 colonies took more than three years and was completed March 1, 1781. The Articles gave little power to the central government. While the Confederation Congress had some decision-making abilities, it lacked enforcement powers. The implementation of most decisions, including amendments to the Articles, required legislative approval by all 13 of
22176-486: Was an ongoing debate beginning in 1789 about "the people" fighting governmental tyranny (as described by Anti-Federalists); or the risk of mob rule of "the people" (as described by the Federalists) related to the increasingly violent French Revolution . A widespread fear, during the debates on ratifying the Constitution, was the possibility of a military takeover of the states by the federal government, which could happen if
22330-550: Was asserted, for example, in a pre-revolutionary newspaper editorial in 1769 objecting to the Crown suppression of colonial opposition to the Townshend Acts : Instances of the licentious and outrageous behavior of the military conservators of the peace still multiply upon us, some of which are of such nature, and have been carried to such lengths, as must serve fully to evince that a late vote of this town, calling upon its inhabitants to provide themselves with arms for their defense,
22484-425: Was first, voting unanimously 30–0; Pennsylvania second, approving the measure 46–23; and New Jersey third, also recording a unanimous vote. As 1788 began, Connecticut and Georgia followed Delaware's lead with almost unanimous votes, but the outcome became less certain as leaders in key states such as Virginia, New York, and Massachusetts expressed concerns over the lack of protections for people's rights. Fearing
22638-402: Was no effective federal military crackdown on an armed tax rebellion in western Massachusetts known as Shays' Rebellion . Anti-federalists, on the other hand, took the side of limited government and sympathized with the rebels, many of whom were former Revolutionary War soldiers. Subsequently, the Constitutional Convention proposed in 1787 to grant Congress exclusive power to raise and support
22792-401: Was obliged to raise funds from Boston merchants to pay for a volunteer army. Congress was paralyzed. It could do nothing significant without nine states, and some legislation required all 13. When a state produced only one member in attendance, its vote was not counted. If a state's delegation was evenly divided, its vote could not be counted towards the nine-count requirement. The Congress of
22946-508: Was of similar concern to less populous states, which under the Articles had the same power as larger states. To satisfy interests in the South, particularly in Georgia and South Carolina, the delegates agreed to protect the slave trade, that is, the importation of slaves, for 20 years. Slavery was protected further by allowing states to count three-fifths of their slaves as part of their populations, for
23100-427: Was partly based on common law and on Magna Carta (1215), which had become a foundation of English liberty against arbitrary power wielded by a ruler. The idea of Separation of Powers inherent in the Constitution was largely inspired by eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophers, such as Montesquieu and John Locke . The influence of Montesquieu, Locke, Edward Coke and William Blackstone were evident at
23254-519: Was received favorably by both the National Rifle Association of America and the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence . Each issued public statements indicating that they felt vindicated by the Court's holding. However, the court did not include a "clarification of the standard for review" as requested by the Brady group in their amicus brief. In a discussion on the day of the ruling Wayne LaPierre of
23408-435: Was regularly littered with refuse, and his home and garage had been broken into a combined five times, the most recent robbery being committed by a man whom McDonald recognized from his own neighborhood. As an experienced hunter, McDonald legally owned shotguns but believed them to be too unwieldy in the event of a robbery and so he wanted to purchase a handgun for personal home defense. Chicago's requirement that all firearms in
23562-402: Was signed between Britain and the U.S., and named each of the American states, various states proceeded to violate it. New York and South Carolina repeatedly prosecuted Loyalists for wartime activity and redistributed their lands. Individual state legislatures independently laid embargoes, negotiated directly with foreign authorities, raised armies, and made war, all violating the letter and
23716-476: Was squarely and, in my view, correctly resolved in the late 19th century." In addition, he argued against incorporation, taking issue with the methodology of the majority opinions. Justice Breyer wrote, "In sum, the Framers did not write the Second Amendment in order to protect a private right of armed self defense. There has been, and is, no consensus that the right is, or was, 'fundamental. ' " The Court's ruling
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