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72-481: Scouse ( / s k aʊ s / skowss ), more formally known as Liverpool English or Merseyside English , is an accent and dialect of English associated with the city of Liverpool and the surrounding Liverpool City Region . The Scouse accent is highly distinctive as it was influenced heavily by Irish and Welsh immigrants who arrived via the Liverpool docks , as well as Scandinavian sailors who also used

144-740: A critical "window," which may vary from one individual to another and depend on factors other than age, such as length of residence, similarity of the non-native language to the native language, and the frequency with which both languages are used. Nevertheless, children as young as 6 at the time of moving to another country often speak with a noticeable non-native accent as adults. There are also rare instances of individuals who are able to pass for native speakers even if they learned their non-native language in early adulthood. However, neurological constraints associated with brain development appear to limit most non-native speakers' ability to sound native-like. Most researchers agree that for most adults, acquiring

216-401: A distinctive local Liverpool accent. The first reference to a distinctive Liverpool accent was in 1890. Linguist Gerald Knowles suggested that the accent's nasal quality may have derived from poor public health in the 19th century, by which the prevalence of colds among many people over a long time resulted in a nasal accent coming to be regarded as the norm and copied by newer incomers learning

288-426: A falsetto register, the issue of 'female falsetto' has been met with controversy among teachers of singing. This controversy does not exist within the sciences and arguments against the existence of female falsetto do not align with current physiological evidence. Some pioneers in vocal pedagogy, like Margaret Green and William Vennard , were quick to adopt current scientific research in the 1950s, and pursued capturing

360-718: A language variety other than their own. For instance, an actor may portray a character of some nationality other than their own by adopting into their native language the phonological profile typical of the nationality to be portrayed, in what is commonly known as "speaking with an accent". Accents may have stereotypical associations in entertainment. For example, in Disney animated films, mothers and fathers typically speak with White, middle-class American or English accents. On another note, English accents in Disney animated films are frequently employed for one of two purposes: slapstick comedy and

432-600: A litmus test for exclusion, and excuse to turn away, to recognize the other. In the English speaking world, speakers with certain accents often experience discrimination in housing and employment. For example, speakers who have foreign or ethnic-minority accents are less likely to be called back by landlords and are more likely to be assigned by employers to lower status positions than those with standard accents. In business settings, individuals with non-standard accents are more likely to be evaluated negatively. Accent discrimination

504-618: A native-like accent in a non-native language is near impossible. When a group defines a standard pronunciation , speakers who deviate from it are often said to "speak with an accent". However, everyone speaks with an accent. People from the United States would "speak English with an accent" from the point of view of an Australian , and vice versa. Accents such as Received Pronunciation or General American English may sometimes be erroneously designated in their countries of origin as "accentless" to indicate that they offer no obvious clue to

576-462: A permanent oval orifice is left in the middle between the edges of the two folds through which a certain volume of air escapes continuously as long as the register is engaged (the singer is singing using the voice). In skilled countertenors , however, the mucous membrane of the vocal folds contact with each other completely during each vibration cycle. The arytenoid cartilages are held in firm apposition in this voice register also. The length or size of

648-400: A person's early twenties, after which a person's accent seems to become more entrenched. Nonetheless, accents are not fixed even in adulthood. An acoustic analysis by Jonathan Harrington of Elizabeth II 's Royal Christmas Messages revealed that the speech patterns of even so conservative a figure as a monarch can continue to change over her lifetime. Accents of non-native speakers may be

720-410: A phenomenon known as damping appears, with the amount of glottal opening becoming less and less as the pitch rises, until only a tiny slit appears on the highest pitches. The mutational chink type of falsetto is considered inefficient and weak, but there is little information available about the relative strengths and weaknesses of the other two types. Both sexes are physically capable of phonating in

792-401: A preference for non-native speaker instructors as long as the instructor's speech is intelligible. This was due to the psychological impacts such circumstances has on the students requiring them to pay closer attention to the instructor to ensure they understand them. Studies have shown the perception of the accent, not the accent by itself, often results in negative evaluations of speakers. In

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864-524: A result, many English-speaking Germans pronounce "wish" as "vish" and "this" as "zis". A similar disjunction occurs in German-speaking native English speakers, who may find it difficult to pronounce the vowels in German words such as "schön" (beautiful) and "müde" (tired). An important factor in predicting the degree to which the accent will be noticeable (or strong) is the age at which the non-native language

936-465: A second or foreign language involves more than the correct articulation of individual sounds. It involves producing a wide range of complex and subtle distinctions which relate sound to meaning at several levels. Teaching of speech/pronunciation is neglected in part because of the following myths: Inadequate instruction in speech/pronunciation can result in a complete breakdown in communication. The proliferation of commercial "accent reduction" services

1008-473: A study conducted by Rubin (1992), students listened to a taped lecture recorded by a native English speaker with a standard accent. They were then shown an image of the "lecturer", sometimes Asian-looking, sometimes white. Participants in the study who saw the Asian picture believed that they had heard an accented lecturer and performed worse on a task that measured lecture comprehension. Negative evaluations may reflect

1080-407: A type of falsetto, according to many singing professionals. These days, head voice is typically defined as a mix of chest and head voice, therefore created a stronger sound than falsetto. The falsetto can be coloured or changed to sound different. It can be given classical styling to sound as male classical countertenors make it sound, or be sung in more contemporary musical styles. In opera , it

1152-566: A uniform language is spoken. In some cases, such as regional accents of English in the United States, accents can be traced back to when an area was settled and by whom. Areas like the city of New Orleans in Louisiana that are, or at one point in time were, semi-isolated have distinct accents due to the absence of contact between regions. Isolated regions allow dialects to expand and evolve independently. Social and economic factors can also influence

1224-399: A voice on an audiotape "sounded black". The police officer based this "identification" on the fact that the defendant was the only African American man in the room at the time of the transaction and that an audio-tape contained the voice of a man the officer said "sounded black" selling crack cocaine to a European American informant planted by the police. Actors are often called upon to speak

1296-425: Is adept at detecting an accent typical of a language differing from their own. Accents have even found to be more impactful on perception of babies than known perceptual dividers like race, religion, or sex. In a PNAS study, babies were told to choose a toy from two recorded speakers with varying characteristics. Ahead of all variables tested, including race and gender, recordings speaking with an accent native to

1368-426: Is also one of four main spoken vocal registers recognized by speech pathology . The term falsetto is most often used in the context of singing to refer to a type of vocal phonation that enables the singer to sing notes beyond the vocal range of the normal or modal voice. The typical tone of falsetto register or M2, usually has a characteristic breathy and flute -like sound relatively free of overtones —which

1440-714: Is also present in educational institutions. For example, non-native speaking graduate students, lecturers, and professors, across college campuses in the US have been targeted for being unintelligible because of accent. Second language speakers have reported being discriminated against, or feeling marginalized for, when they attempted to find a job in higher ranking positions mainly because of their accents. On average, however, students taught by non-native English speakers do not underperform when compared to those taught by native speakers of English. Some English native-speaker students in Canada reported

1512-410: Is believed that the chest voice , middle voice and head voice occur in women. The head voice of a man is, according to David A. Clippinger generally equivalent to the middle voice of a woman. This may mean the head voice of a woman is a man's falsetto equivalent. Although, in contemporary teaching, some teachers no longer talk of the middle voice, choosing to call it the head voice as with men. Falsetto

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1584-418: Is capable of producing much more complex waveforms and infinite varieties of tone color. Falsetto, however, does involve less physical effort by the singer than the modal voice and, when properly used, can make possible some desirable tonal effects. The ability to speak within the falsetto register is possible for almost all men and women. The use of falsetto is considered uncommon in normal Western speech and

1656-614: Is distinctive to a country , area , social class , or individual . An accent may be identified with the locality in which its speakers reside (a regional or geographical accent), the socioeconomic status of its speakers, their ethnicity (an ethnolect), their caste or social class (a social accent), or influence from their first language (a foreign accent). Accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation and distinction of vowels and consonants, stress, and prosody . Although grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary concurrently with accent,

1728-449: Is highly distinguishable from other English dialects. Because of this international recognition, Keith Szlamp made a request to IANA on 16 September 1996 to make it a recognised Internet dialect. After citing a number of references, the application was accepted on 25 May 2000 and now allows Internet documents that use the dialect to be categorised as Scouse by using the language tag "en-Scouse". Scouse has also become well-known globally as

1800-435: Is in female voices. This is due in part to the difference in the length and mass of the vocal folds and to the difference in frequency ranges. However, motion picture and video studies of laryngeal action prove that women can and do produce falsetto, and electromyographic studies by several leading speech pathologists and vocal pedagogists provide further confirmation. While scientific evidence has proven that women have

1872-446: Is more limited than its modal counterpart in both dynamic variation and tone quality. However, William Vennard points out that while most untrained people can sound comparatively "breathy" or "hooty" when using falsetto production, there are in rarer cases individuals who have developed a much stronger falsetto sound production, which has more "ring" to it. The modal voice, or modal register, and falsetto register differ primarily in

1944-509: Is most often employed within the context of humor. However, the use of falsetto speech varies by culture and its use has been studied in African Americans and gay men in certain contexts. Its use has also been noted in the U.S. South. Pitch changes ranging to falsetto are also characteristic of British English. Some people who speak frequently or entirely in the falsetto register are identified by speech pathologists as suffering from

2016-413: Is negligible vertical phase difference. The vocalis muscles fall to the sides of the larynx and the vibration take place almost entirely in the ligaments. In the modal register, the vocal folds (when viewed with a stroboscope) are seen to contact with each other completely during each vibration, closing the gap between them fully, if just for a very short time. This closure cuts off the escaping air. When

2088-437: Is not generally counted by classical purists as a part of the vocal range of anyone except countertenors . There are exceptions, however, such as the baryton-Martin which uses falsetto (see baritone article). Falsetto is more limited in dynamic variation and tone quality than the modal voice. Falsetto does not connect to modal voice except at very low volumes, leading to vocal breaks when transitioning from modal voice. In

2160-683: Is often due to their association with the elite part of society. For example, in the United Kingdom , Received Pronunciation of the English language is associated with the traditional upper class . The same can be said about the predominance of Southeastern Brazilian accents in the case of the Brazilian variant of the Portuguese language , especially considering the disparity of prestige between most caipira -influenced speech, associated with rural environment and lack of formal education, together with

2232-412: Is seen as a sign that many ESL teachers are not meeting their students' needs for speech/pronunciation instruction. The goals of speech/pronunciation instruction should include: to help the learner speak in a way that is easy to understand and does not distract the listener, to increase the self-confidence of the learner, and to develop the skills to self-monitor and adapt one's own speech. Even when

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2304-454: Is used by male countertenors to sing in the alto and occasionally the soprano range and was the standard before women sang in choirs . Falsetto is occasionally used by early music specialists today and regularly in British cathedral choirs by men who sing the alto line. There is a difference between the modern usage of the " head voice " term and its previous meaning in the renaissance as

2376-511: The Low German labskaus and refers to a stew of the same name commonly eaten by sailors. In the 19th century, poorer people in Liverpool, Birkenhead, Bootle and Wallasey commonly ate scouse as it was a cheap dish and familiar to the families of seafarers. Outsiders tended to call these people "scousers". In The Lancashire Dictionary of Dialect, Tradition and Folklore , Alan Crosby suggested that

2448-418: The cricothyroid muscles to stretch the vocal ligaments. William Vennard describes this process as follows: With the vocalis muscles relaxed it is possible for the cricothyroids to place great longitudinal tension upon the vocal ligaments . The tension can be increased in order to raise the pitch even after the maximum length of the cords has been reached. This makes the vocal folds thin so that there

2520-403: The (potential) employee's accent would interfere with communication or performance, without any objective proof that accent was or might be a hindrance. Kentucky's highest court in the case of Clifford vs. Commonwealth held that a white police officer, who had not seen the black defendant allegedly involved in a drug transaction, could, nevertheless, identify him as a participant by saying that

2592-499: The 16th century the term falsetto was common in Italy. The physician, Giovanni Camillo Maffei, in his book Discorso della voce e del modo d'apparare di cantar di garganta in 1562, explained that when a bass singer sang in the soprano range, the voice was called "falsetto". In a book by GB Mancini, called Pensieri e riflessioni written in 1774, falsetto is equated with " voce di testa " (translated as ' head voice '). The falsetto register

2664-506: The German school of voice teachers had largely embraced the idea of a female falsetto into pedagogical practice, there is division within the French and English schools and a complete rejection of the idea of female falsetto in the Italian school of singing. In his 2004 book, Solutions for Singers: Tools For Performers and Teachers , Miller said, "It is illogical to speak of a female falsetto, because

2736-668: The Portuguese spoken in some other communities of lower socioeconomic strata such as favela dwellers, and other sociocultural variants such as middle and upper class paulistano (dialect spoken from Greater São Paulo to the East) and fluminense (dialect spoken in the state of Rio de Janeiro ) to the other side, inside Southeastern Brazil itself. In linguistics, there is no differentiation among accents in regard to their prestige, aesthetics, or correctness. All languages and accents are linguistically equal. Negative perceptions of accents,

2808-658: The Wirral, but these respondents spoke in the traditional Cheshire dialect at the time and not in Scouse. The 1950s Survey of English Dialects recorded traditional Lancastrian dialect from the town of Halewood , finding no trace of Scouse influence. The phonetician John C. Wells wrote that "the Scouse accent might as well not exist" in The Linguistic Atlas of England , which was the Survey's principal output. An academic study of Scouse

2880-418: The absence of modern vocal training to hold back the volume of modal voice, in this overlapping area a given pitch in modal voice will be louder than the same pitch sung in falsetto. The type of vocal cord vibration that produces the falsetto voice precludes loud singing except in the highest tones of that register; it also limits the available tone colors because of the simplicity of its waveform. Modal voice

2952-456: The accent of the Beatles . While the members of the band are famously from Liverpool, their accents have more in common with the older Lancashire-like Liverpool dialect found in the southern suburbs; the accent has evolved into Scouse since the 1960s. Other northern English dialects include: Accent (dialect) In sociolinguistics , an accent is a way of pronouncing a language that

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3024-400: The accent of Liverpool's city centre and northern neighbourhoods is usually described as fast, harsh, and nasal, while the " Beatles -like" accent found in the southern suburbs of Liverpool is typically referred to as slow, soft, and dark. Popular colloquialisms have shown a growing deviation from the historical Lancashire dialect that was previously found in Liverpool, as well as a growth in

3096-446: The action of the vocal cords . Production of the normal voice involves vibration of the entire vocal cord, with the glottis opening first at the bottom and then at the top. Production of falsetto, on the other hand, vibrates only the ligamentous edges of the vocal folds while leaving each fold's body relatively relaxed. Transition from modal voice to falsetto occurs when each vocal cord's main body, or vocalis muscle , relaxes, enabling

3168-441: The air pressure in the trachea rises as a result of this closure, the folds are blown apart, while the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages remain in apposition . This creates an oval gap between the folds and some air escapes, lowering the pressure inside the trachea. Rhythmic repetition of this movement creates the note. In falsetto, however, the vocal folds are seen to be blown apart, and in untrained falsetto singers,

3240-504: The area. Until the mid-19th century, the dominant local accent was similar to that of neighbouring areas of Lancashire . For instance, the comedian and actor Robb Wilton (1881–1957), despite coming from the Everton district of Liverpool, spoke with a dry Lancashire accent rather than a Scouse accent. The influence of immigrants from Ireland (especially Dublin ) and Northern Wales , as well as visiting Scandinavian sailors, contributed to

3312-558: The basis of which may relate to the speaker's social identity, can manifest as stereotyping , harassment or employment discrimination . Researchers consistently show that people with non-native accents are judged as less intelligent, less competent, less educated, having poor English/language skills, and unpleasant to listen to. Not only people with standard accents subscribe to these beliefs and attitudes, but individuals with accents also often stereotype against their own or others' accents. Research demonstrates that an average listener

3384-537: The biological process of female falsetto on film. They went further to incorporate their research into their pedagogical method of teaching female singers. Others refused to accept the idea, and opposition to the concept of female falsetto has continued among some teachers of singing long after scientific evidence had proven the existence of female falsetto. Celebrated opera singer and voice teacher Richard Miller pointed out in his 1997 publication National Schools of Singing: English, French, German, and Italian that while

3456-482: The brain that link each sound with a meaning. The more frequently a word is heard, the more its connection is solidified and the same goes for accents. There is no "standard" accent for the child to practice; as far as they are concerned, the accent they hear from their parents is not the "right" way but the only way. Eventually children graduate from the conscious act of recalling each word, and it becomes natural, like breathing. As children grow up, they learn vocabulary of

3528-515: The child were selected at a considerably higher frequency. Unlike other forms of discrimination, there are no strong norms against accent discrimination in the general society. Rosina Lippi-Green writes, Accent serves as the first point of gate keeping because we are forbidden, by law and social custom, and perhaps by a prevailing sense of what is morally and ethically right, from using race, ethnicity, homeland or economics more directly. We have no such compunctions about language, thus, accent becomes

3600-409: The dialect of the local area. Scousers tend to speak at a higher pitch than most other English speakers, sometimes approaching falsetto . The Victorian phonetician Alexander John Ellis said that Liverpool and Birkenhead "had no dialect proper", as he conceived of dialects as speech that had been passed down through generations from the earliest English speakers. Ellis did research some locations on

3672-471: The docks, and thus has very little in common with the accents found throughout the rest of England. People from Liverpool are known as Liverpudlians, but are usually called Scousers; the name comes from scouse , a stew originating from Scandinavian lobscouse eaten by sailors and locals. The development of Liverpool since the 1950s has spread the accent into nearby areas such as the towns of Runcorn and Skelmersdale . Variations within Scouse have been noted:

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3744-414: The edges furthest away from the middle of the gap between the folds) appear to be the only parts vibrating. The mass corresponding to the innermost part of the thyroarytenoid muscle remains still and motionless. Some singers feel a sense of muscular relief when they change from the modal register to the falsetto register. Research has revealed that not all speakers and singers produce falsetto in exactly

3816-404: The falsetto register. Prior to research done by scientists in the 1950s and 1960s, it was widely believed that only men were able to produce falsetto. One possible explanation for this failure to recognize the female falsetto sooner is that when men phonate in the falsetto register there is a much more pronounced change in timbre and dynamic level between the modal and falsetto registers than there

3888-515: The female is incapable of producing a timbre in the upper range that is radically different from its mezza voce or voce piena in testa qualities". However, other writers of singing have warned about the dangers of failing to recognize that women have a falsetto register. McKinney, who expressed alarm that many books on the art of singing completely ignore or gloss over the issue of female falsetto or insist that women do not have falsetto, argues that many young female singers substitute falsetto for

3960-441: The formation of the different varieties of North American accents. It is difficult to measure or predict how long it takes an accent to form. Accents from Canada , South Africa , Australia and the United States for example, developed from the combinations of different accents and languages in various societies and their effect on the various pronunciations of British settlers. Accents may vary within regions of an area in which

4032-539: The influence of the accent in the wider area. Scouse is often considered by other Britons to be one of the country's least popular accents due to its difficulty, but it conversely also performs very well in polls of British accents that people perceive as happy and friendly. The word scouse is a shortened form of lobscouse , the origin of which is uncertain. It is related to the Norwegian lapskaus , Swedish lapskojs , and Danish labskovs (skipperlabskovs) , as well as

4104-439: The language they are immersed in, whether assisted by parents or not. However, their first few encounters with words determine the way they will pronounce them for the rest of their lives. This is how accents are cultivated in groups as small as towns and as large as countries; it is a compounding effect. Though it is possible to develop a new accent or lose an old one, it is difficult because the neural pathways created when learning

4176-415: The language were developed with the "original" pronunciations. Children are able to take on accents relatively quickly. Children of immigrant families, for example, generally have a pronunciation more similar to people native to where they live compared to their parents, but both children and parents may have an accent noticeably differing from local people. Accents seem to remain relatively malleable until

4248-515: The listener does understand the speaker, the presence of an accent that is difficult to understand can produce anxiety in the listener that he will not understand what comes next, and cause him to end the conversation earlier or avoid difficult topics. "In speech the perceptual salience of the accent overrides other measures of competence and performance," wrote Ingrid Piller . Intelligibility of speech, in comparison to native-like accent, has been experimentally reported to be of greater importance for

4320-408: The oval orifice or separation between the folds can vary, but it is known to get bigger as the pressure of air pushed out is increased. The folds are made up of elastic and fatty tissue. The folds are covered on the surface by laryngeal mucous membrane , which is supported deeper down underneath by the innermost fibres of the thyroarytenoid muscle . In falsetto, the extreme membranous edges (i.e.,

4392-487: The portrayal of evil geniuses . Examples of this can be seen in characters from the films Aladdin ( the Sultan and Jafar , respectively) and The Lion King ( Zazu and Scar , respectively), among others. Falsetto It is produced by the vibration of the ligamentous edges of the vocal cords , in whole or in part. Commonly cited in the context of singing, falsetto, a characteristic of phonation by both sexes,

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4464-510: The prejudices rather than real issues with understanding accents. In the United States, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on national origin, implying accents. However, employers may claim that a person's accent impairs their communication skills that are necessary to the effective business operation. The courts often rely on the employer's claims or use judges' subjective opinions when deciding whether

4536-541: The result of the speaker's native language. Each language contains distinct sets of sounds. At around 12 months of age, human infants will pick out which sounds they need to learn their language. As they get older it becomes increasingly harder to learn these "forgotten" sounds. A prime example of this can be seen between German and English—the "w" and "th" sounds, like in the English words "wish" and "this" respectively, do not exist in German—the closest sounds are "v" and "z". As

4608-424: The same way. Some speakers and singers leave the cartilaginous portion of the glottis open (sometimes called 'mutational chink'), and only the front two-thirds of the vocal ligaments enter the vibration. The resulting sound, which is typical of many adolescents, may be pure and flutelike, but is usually soft and anemic in quality. In others, the full length of the glottis opens and closes in each cycle. In still others,

4680-433: The second language speakers. As such ways of increasing intelligibility of speech has been recommended by some researchers within the field. A strong accent does not necessarily impede intelligibility despite common perceptions. Certain accents, particularly those of European heritage, are perceived to carry more prestige in a society than other accents, such that some speakers may as a result consciously adopt them. This

4752-561: The speaker's regional or social background. Accents are an important dimension of social identity, both individual and communal, due to their ability to identify group or community belonging. One's accent can showcase their class, religion or sexual orientation . Many teachers of English as a second language for example neglect teaching speech and pronunciation. Many adult and near-adult learners of second languages have unintelligible speech patterns that may interfere with their education, profession, and social interactions. Pronunciation in

4824-637: The upper portion of the modal voice. He believes that this failure to recognize the female falsetto voice has led to the misidentification of young contraltos and mezzo-sopranos as sopranos , as it is easier for these lower voice types to sing in the soprano tessitura using their falsetto register. Use of falsetto voice in western music is very old. Its origins are difficult to trace because of ambiguities in terminology. Possibly when 13th century writers distinguished between chest, throat and head registers ( pectoris, guttoris, capitis ) they meant capitis to refer to what would be later called falsetto. By

4896-495: The way people speak. During the early period of rapid cognitive development in a child's life, it is much easier to develop and master foreign skills such as learning a new (or first) language. Verbal cues are processed and silently learned in preparation for the day the vocal system is developed enough to speak its first words (usually around 12 months). Before infants can identify words, they just hear "sounds" that they come to recognize. Eventually neural pathways are established in

4968-440: The word "accent" may refer specifically to the differences in pronunciation, whereas the word " dialect " encompasses the broader set of linguistic differences. "Accent" is often a subset of "dialect". As human beings spread out into isolated communities, stresses and peculiarities develop. Over time, they can develop into identifiable accents. In North America , the interaction of people from many ethnic backgrounds contributed to

5040-594: The word only became known nationwide with the popularity of the BBC sitcom Till Death Us Do Part (1965–1975), which featured a Liverpudlian socialist and a Cockney conservative in a regular argument. Originally a small fishing village, Liverpool developed as a port. After the 1700s, it developed into a major international trading and industrial centre. The city consequently became a melting pot of several accents and dialects as sailors and traders from different areas (specifically Wales and Ireland ) established themselves in

5112-431: Was learned. The critical period theory states that if learning takes place after the critical period (usually considered around puberty) for acquiring native-like pronunciation, an individual is unlikely to acquire a native-like accent. This theory, however, is quite controversial among researchers. Although many subscribe to some form of the critical period, they either place it earlier than puberty or consider it more of

5184-469: Was undertaken by Gerald Knowles at the University of Leeds in 1973. He identified a key problem: that traditional dialect research had focused on developments from a single proto-language , but Scouse (and many other urban dialects) had resulted from interactions between an unknown number of languages. The phonemic notation used in this article is based on the set of symbols used by Watson (2007) . Scouse

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