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179-571: Associated articles 1915 1916 1917 1918 Associated articles The Capture of Schwaben Redoubt ( Schwaben-Feste ) was a tactical incident in the Battle of the Somme, 1916 during the First World War . The redoubt was a German strong point 500–600 yd (460–550 m) long and 200 yd (180 m) wide, built in stages since 1915, near the village of Thiepval and overlooking

358-511: A Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. After Russia mobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia and France , who had an alliance . The United Kingdom entered after Germany invaded Belgium , whose neutrality it guaranteed, and

537-682: A battle of attrition , as claimed in his post-war memoirs, in the Battle of Verdun in early 1916. Falkenhayn argued to the Kaiser that the war would end by causing many casualties to the French Army using methods that limited German losses. Falkenhayn hoped that the French would fight for Verdun, the gateway to France from the east. Verdun offered the Germans the advantages of their artillery firing from three sides into

716-630: A blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to

895-583: A grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie . According to historian Zbyněk Zeman , in Vienna "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June,

1074-536: A guerrilla warfare campaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India , while the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of

1253-668: A joint offensive against Romania with August von Mackensen who attacked from Bulgaria, through the Dobruja . As the commander of the 9th Army, Falkenhayn settled his army in Brașov and deceived the Romanians into believing that there would be no offensives in western Romania. The 9th Army fought the Romanian First Army in Hațeg . After the battle, Falkenhayn joined with Austrian forces to surround

1432-482: A "wild and desperate venture", before the survivors were repulsed from the objective by German troops in the D Line (Grandcourt Trench). German attacks on the left flank from St Pierre Divion, were forced back several times, by the remaining men of the three battalions on the left flank; on the right flank, the Mouquet Switch trench was reconnoitred and found empty. An attack from the east face of Schwaben Redoubt

1611-582: A 1,000 yd (910 m) front. The infantry attack began at 5:13 a.m., from the Hamel–Thiepval road behind a creeping barrage, as the heavy artillery bombarded positions to the south-east, Schwaben Redoubt and the Strasburg Line. Few casualties were suffered during the advance over no man's land and the two 147th Brigade battalions took the German front line and then reached the support trench. Direction

1790-408: A change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began. Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS  Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage. Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to

1969-575: A decisive victory. He advocated a mild peace with the Russian Empire to Bethmann Hollweg, the better to concentrate against the French and British. Neither Bethmann Hollweg nor the generals on the Eastern Front , such as Paul von Hindenburg , Erich Ludendorff or Max Hoffmann , supported the idea since they believed that negotiation with the Russian Empire was impossible. While Helmuth von Moltke

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2148-592: A direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as

2327-563: A favourite of the Kaiser and he became one of the military instructors of Crown Prince Wilhelm of Prussia. After his service in Asia, the army posted him to Brunswick , Metz and Magdeburg as a battalion commander in the posted area. On 10 April 1906, Falkenhayn became a section chief of the German General Staff. In 1907, Falkenhayn became Chief of Staff of the XVI Corps . In 1908, Falkenhayn

2506-401: A few minutes and after a ten-minute halt, advanced to Zollern Trench by 1:15 p.m., meeting troops of the 54th Brigade north of Thiepval. The advance towards the redoubt was stopped after 250 yd (230 m), by small arms fire from the front and flanks and the troops retired after dark. Attempts on the left to bomb forward during the evening also failed. The 54th Brigade was to capture

2685-418: A gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris. The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911,

2864-522: A general who participated in the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler . Falkenhayn in many ways typified the Prussian generals; a militarist in the literal sense, he had undeniable political and military competence and showed contempt for democracy and the representative Reichstag . He addressed the Reichstag in 1914, saying, "Only through the fact that the Prussian army is removed by the constitution from

3043-552: A great European war but he soon embraced the idea and joined others in wanting Wilhelm II to declare war. He later noted in his diary, after a discussion with the Kaiser in the Neues Palais in Potsdam, "He makes confused speeches. The only thing that emerges clearly is that he no longer wants war, even if it means letting Austria down. I point out that he no longer has control over the situation". Falkenhayn wanted early mobilisation since

3222-624: A large salient in the German lines, excellent German communications and Verdun being bisected by the Meuse , which made it difficult for the French to defend. He ordered the Crown Prince to feint in Verdun and annihilate the French armies, which would try to defend the city by sending more troops. Falkenhayn's strategy backfired, the Crown Prince and his chief of staff, Konstantin Schmidt von Knobelsdorf disobeyed

3401-703: A leave of absence and served Qing-Dynasty China as a military consultant and helped to establish some Chinese sea ports. In 1889 he returned to German service in the new Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory in China, serving in a Seebataillon (Marine Battalion) until March 1899, when he became a Major in the Army. He saw action during the Boxer Rebellion as a general staff officer of Alfred von Waldersee and spent time in Manchuria and Korea . Service in Asia made Falkenhayn to be

3580-495: A military convention with Conrad von Hötzendorf, which called for an immediate attack on Serbia. In the fall of 1915, Falkenhayn launched an attack against Serbia. Late in the year the favourable situation gave Falkenhayn hope to achieving peace in the east. Falkenhayn preferred to conduct an offensive strategy on the Western Front , while conducting a limited campaign in the east; he hoped that Russia could be persuaded to accept

3759-540: A possibility. This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911 Agadir Crisis . German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth to build an Imperial German Navy , that could compete with the British Royal Navy . This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan , who argued that possession of

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3938-799: A revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity. Leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule , a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu , the Secretary of State for India . In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and

4117-586: A second position (the Grandcourt Line to the British), was dug south from Grandcourt to Pozières, with a line of new Festen (redoubts), Sodern , Grallsburg , Alte Württemburg , Staufen and Zollern . Schwabenschanze was developed into Schwaben-Feste (Schwaben Redoubt) and connected to Mouquet Farm by Auwärtergraben , Thiepval wood by Teufelsgraben and to Thiepval village by Martinspfad . The redoubt dominated Thiepval,

4296-434: A separate peace. Hindenburg and Ludendorff opposed this policy and wanted the main offensive effort to be in the east. Falkenhayn tried to weaken the French and British with renewed attacks and unrestricted submarine warfare . According to Admiral Reinhard Scheer , Falkenhayn was an advocate of submarine warfare because countering Britain was an important war aim but this was opposed by Bethmann Hollweg. Falkenhayn conducted

4475-504: A significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League , an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro , and Greece . The League quickly overran most of

4654-624: A significant role on the General Staff. On 8 July 1913 Falkenhayn became Prussian Minister of War , succeeding Josias von Heeringen , who was considered to be inactive. During the Zabern Affair , Falkenhayn, as the minister, was part of the conference to end the affair. During the July Crisis , he was at the meeting on 5 July 1914 when Germany announced to Austria-Hungary its support for war. Like most German military leaders, he did not expect

4833-575: A war leader was attacked in Germany during and after the war, especially by the faction supporting Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg . Falkenhayn held that Germany could not win the war by a decisive battle but would have to reach a compromise peace; his enemies said he lacked the resolve necessary to win a decisive victory. Falkenhayn's relations with the Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg were troubled and undercut Falkenhayn's plans. Falkenhayn

5012-471: A war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon. Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under

5191-402: A weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria . Russia had ambitions in northeastern Anatolia while its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as

5370-403: A whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans. The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such as trench foot , lice , typhus , trench fever , and the ' Spanish flu '. At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across

5549-503: Is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by

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5728-573: The Oberste Heeresleitung (the German General Staff) on 14 September 1914. Falkenhayn was 53 years old, making him the youngest man to become chief of staff. Falkenhayn continued in office as minister of war for another five months. Falkenhayn recommended Adolf Wild von Hohenborn as the new war minister; the Kaiser agreed with his recommendation, making Hohenborn the next war minister. Falkenhayn moved OHL to Mézières , to put OHL at

5907-557: The Hansalinie and then began to bomb up the line towards Schwaben Redoubt. The Irish troops in Artilleriemulde were overrun and captured or killed. In the centre, the counter-attack began from Staufen-Feste (Stuff Redoubt), with three companies of BRIR 8 but was promptly engaged by British artillery and forced under cover. The advance was continued along Hessen Weg , which led from Courcelette to Thepval and then moved into

6086-479: The Hansalinie which ran from the redoubt down the north edge of the ridge to the Ancre. The left hand battalion of RIR 99 had repulsed the attack on Thiepval but the centre and right, from the village to the Ancre south of St Pierre Divion, had been broken through, most of the troops having been trapped underground and taken prisoner. Observers in the Grandcourt Line were unable to see the breakthrough and over-running of

6265-558: The Schutzkorps was established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as

6444-626: The World War . In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself". In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War." Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as " the war to end war " and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life. The first recorded use of

6623-488: The 109th Brigade on the right and the 108th Brigade on the left. The 109th Brigade was advance with two battalions to capture the A Line (the German front line), the immediate support trench (A1) and then the B Line, before moving on to the Grandcourt–Thiepval road and consolidating. Two reserve battalions were to occupy the A and B Lines, when the advanced battalions had reached the final objective. The 108th Brigade

6802-866: The Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers . Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East , as well as in parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific , and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare ; the widespread use of artillery , machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and the introductions of tanks and aircraft . World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in history , resulting in an estimated 10 million military dead and more than 20 million wounded , plus some 10 million civilian dead from causes including genocide . The movement of large numbers of people

6981-617: The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain , then part of German New Guinea . On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS  Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang . Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate , as well as German Treaty ports on

7160-774: The Austro-Hungarian Army , as his uneasy ally. They differed on war aims; Hötzendorf wanting a war against Russia, Falkenhayn against France. Falkenhayn attempted to keep Italy out of the war but failed. Attacks on the Eastern front to support the Austrians, such as the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive , caused the Russians to evacuate Russian Poland and then to retreat deeper into the Russian interior. On 8 September 1915, Falkenhayn signed

7339-680: The Egyptian Expeditionary Force in December 1917 and was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders . Falkenhayn is credited with avoiding a battle for the Old City of Jerusalem with its many holy sites, as well as with a crucial role in stopping the forced removal of the Jewish population of Palestine, which Governor Djemal Pasha had planned along the lines of the Armenian genocide . The evacuation of

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7518-700: The Ottoman Yildirim Army Group ( Heeresgruppe F [Army Group F]), which was being formed in Mesopotamia and at Aleppo . After discussions with the Ottoman general staff, Falkenhayn was made supreme commander of two Ottoman armies in Palestine , with the rank of Mushir (field marshal) of the Ottoman Army . In the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , Falkenhayn failed to prevent the conquest of Jerusalem by

7697-430: The River Ancre . It formed part of the German defensive system in the Somme sector of the Western Front during the First World War and consisting of a mass of machine-gun emplacements, trenches and dug-outs. The redoubt was defended by the 26th Reserve Division , from Swabia in south-west Germany, which had arrived in the area during the First Battle of Albert in 1914. Troops of the 36th (Ulster) Division captured

7876-591: The Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution . Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia,

8055-403: The United States entered the war on the Allied side following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution , and Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace in March 1918. That month, Germany launched an offensive in

8234-423: The hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at

8413-442: The tank . After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the " Race to the Sea ". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border. Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held

8592-421: The 107th Brigade to assemble, the barrage would jump to a line 300 yd (270 m) east of the D Line. Field artillery would "walk" up communication trenches during each lift and Stokes mortars were to join in the hurricane bombardment as medium and heavy mortars bombarded strong points. The French artillery was to participate in the wire-cutting bombardment and then fire gas shells into the Ancre valley. On

8771-427: The 107th Brigade was to advance in artillery formation until resistance was met. At 7:15 a.m., four hours after dawn, the Irish troops formed up in no man's land, most along the sunken Thiepval–Hamel road, obscured by the bombardment and smoke screens on the flanks and moved to within 150 yd (140 m) of the German front trench. The artillery and mortar bombardment lifted off the front trench at 7:30 a.m. and

8950-403: The 10th Royal Irish Rifles on the right, had to pass through machine-gun fire from front, right flank and right rear, which caused many casualties. By 10:00 a.m. runners had reported the fall of the C Line, eight minutes before the advance to the D Line was due to begin. Because of the defeats of the 32nd Division on the right flank at Thiepval and the VIII Corps divisions on the north bank of

9129-420: The 14th was a soldier’s battle. At the beginning of the fight nearly all of the officers of the attacking companies were either killed or wounded, and it says much for the grit and endurance of the men that the 4/5th never wavered; it carried its attack forward with great gallantry and determination, hung on for hours under heavy German shell fire, repelled all enemy counter-attacks and, finally, having consolidated

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9308-405: The 16th Sherwood Foresters made a surprise attack over ground, on the northern face beyond the crest, as the trenches had filled with mud but the Germans were waiting and repulsed the attack. On 14 October, the 4th/5th Black Watch , the 1st Cambridge and the 17th King's Royal Rifle Corps of the 117th Brigade, attacked the north side of the redoubt. The troops advanced over the open and captured

9487-588: The 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime Minister Asquith and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention. On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply. Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross

9666-431: The 1879 Dual Alliance , which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up the Reinsurance Treaty , a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia

9845-431: The 18th (Eastern) Division during the capture of the redoubt, except the north-west corner from points 19 to 69, were 1,990 men and the division estimated German casualties at 2,500, including 237 prisoners. Books Books Websites First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War , was a global conflict between two coalitions:

10024-441: The 1913 Treaty of London , which had created an independent Albania while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War , when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. The result was that even countries which benefited from

10203-538: The 26th Division field artillery, wrote a report in which he described failures of communication, which led to an advantage created by the blowing of a mine being squandered by the artillery. Bornemann wrote that artillery battery observation posts had been left unmanned, on the assumption that they had been superseded by artillery liaison officers in the front line. Reporting had been inadequate due to complacency and reports should have been circulated to all headquarters rather than individual officers making assumptions that

10382-408: The 3 September attack was excellent but lack of surprise and the dominating position of Schwaben Redoubt made success unlikely. The 49th (West Riding) Division troops were tired and had been sent partly trained replacements, said to have had low morale. Some of the replacements were so inexperienced that they thought that they were being ordered to walk into German artillery-fire, rather than follow

10561-500: The Ancre, Nugent tried to get permission from X Corps headquarters to cancel the 107th Brigade attack on the D Line. Nugent was over-ruled, as new attacks were being arranged on the flanks; about 45 minutes later X Corps HQ ordered the advance to stop until the situation on the flanks was clearer. The stop order failed to reach the 107th Brigade, because telephone lines had been cut and runners were shot down crossing no man's land. The brigade advanced for about 1,000 yd (910 m) in

10740-409: The Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and Kolubara ; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia. Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century. In 1915,

10919-593: The Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade . A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia , Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in

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11098-503: The B Line at 7:48 a.m. and took a large number of prisoners but German troops emerged from dugouts in the A Line behind the 108th Brigade, where the moppers-up had been killed by machine-gun fire. The leading waves continued to advance and reached the C Line and the corner of Schwaben Redoubt at 8:48 a.m. The supporting battalion survivors had occupied their objectives but cross-fire from German machine-guns then prevented movement. Reserve IR 99 of Reserve Infantry Brigade 52, holding

11277-493: The Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany. This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the " powder keg of Europe ". On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria , visited Sarajevo ,

11456-435: The British creeping barrage. German analysis of the defeat at Thiepval during the Battle of Thiepval Ridge, ascribed the British success to the defeat of RIR 77 and 153 east of the village, which led to the village defences being outflanked. The British had been able to push up to Schwaben Redoubt by bombing forward with hand grenades. Major-General Arthur Wauchope , the historian of the Black Watch, wrote, The attack on

11635-456: The British infantry to attack the German positions from a comparatively short distance away. Russian saps in front of Thiepval were the work of 179th Tunnelling Company , which also prepared such saps further south at Ovillers and La Boisselle . In the X Corps section allocated to the 36th (Ulster) Division (Major-General Oliver Nugent ), ten Russian saps were dug from the British lines into no-man's land, north-east of Thiepval Wood; each of

11814-427: The British positions in the redoubt had been consolidated and the 7th Queen's relieved. Next day, the 8th East Surrey was counter-attacked and forced out of the redoubt, until a bayonet attack restored the position but the west face was lost by the 7th West Kents . At 4:00 p.m., the East Surreys attacked the northern face and took the objective but the attack up the west face was repulsed. A German counter-attack from

11993-404: The Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir offensive , which brought stabilisation of

12172-410: The Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao . After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiser SMS  Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. Some of the first clashes of

12351-416: The French artillery. The 146th Brigade of the 49th (West Riding) Division attacked Thiepval at 3:00 p.m. but stopped after the leading battalion was shot down. A German counter-attack then began on the left flank and was equally visible to the British, who destroyed the attack with Lewis guns and artillery. At 4:00 p.m., two of the 146th Brigade battalions were ordered to Schwaben Redoubt to reinforce

12530-450: The General Staff, one staff officer wrote that Falkenhayn had lacked decisiveness and foresight in the matters of organization and tactics. All sources portray Falkenhayn as a loyal, honest and punctilious friend and superior. His positive legacy is his conduct during the war in Palestine in 1917. As his biographer Holger Afflerbach wrote, "An inhuman excess against the Jews in Palestine was prevented only by Falkenhayn's conduct, which against

12709-548: The German High Seas Fleet was confined to port. German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond

12888-623: The German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30. He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan. Historian Richard Holmes argues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in

13067-460: The German field defences to wreckage and the defenders dispersed among shell-holes and the surviving dug-outs. On 3 September, the British attacked along the Ancre river despite poor weather, to gain strictly limited objectives in the Anzac and II Corps sectors, east of Thiepval. On the left of II Corps, the 49th (West Riding) Division (Brigadier-General Goring-Jones), was to capture two lines of trenches on

13246-465: The German machine gunners to fire for long before they were overrun. Communications on the German side broke down but news of the breakthrough reached Soden quickly, from Beaucourt Redoubt on the north bank of the Ancre. II Battalion, Bavarian Reserve Regiment 8 (BRIR 8) at Irles , 5 mi (8.0 km) north-east of Thiepval was ordered to counter-attack but did not receive the order until 9:00 p.m. The Brigade commander had already ordered all troops in

13425-672: The German right wing would sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium , then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator, Alfred von Schlieffen , head of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke

13604-487: The German wire was well cut. After a hurricane bombardment for 65 minutes, a lifting bombardment was planned to fall on the German lines in succession, from A to A1 at zero hour, A1 to B three minutes after zero and from the B Line to a line 400 yd (370 m) back 18 minutes after zero hour. The jump to the C Line, would occur after 28 minutes and the final lift to the D Line, 98 minutes after zero hour. After standing until 198 minutes after zero hour, to enable

13783-480: The Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. The opening day on 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army , which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As

13962-497: The Germans recaptured the redoubt in about thirty minutes, finding it strewn with about 700 Irish dead. By midnight the ridge had been re-occupied and two more battalions of IR 180 had arrived and moved to the Hansalinie and the redoubt, available to reinforce the front line from Thiepval to the Ancre. The Reserve Army kept up a continuous bombardment on the Thiepval–St Pierre Divion area after 1 July, which reduced

14141-490: The Irish advanced steadily, crossing the front trench with few losses but then the German counter-barrage fell on the rear of the first line and the support companies. As soon as the British guns stopped, machine-gun fire from Thiepval cemetery swept the support battalions as they moved forward and fire from Beaucourt Redoubt across the Ancre, caught the third support battalion on the left flank. The foremost infantry pressed on, reached

14320-423: The Irish troops as German infantry counter-attacked from the flanks, using hand grenades. In late September, the British gained a footing in the redoubt during the Battle of Thiepval Ridge (26–28 September). Attack and counter-attack followed until 14 October, when troops of the 39th Division , captured the last German foothold in the redoubt and repulsed German counter-attacks from 15 to 21 October. The site of

14499-455: The Irish, who were being forced slowly back by counter-attacks but the leading battalions had been committed to the Thiepval attack and the other two were in the 32nd Division front line. At 7:18 p.m., six companies advanced towards the C Line but were forced back by machine-gun fire. The three recruit companies of IR 180 advanced in lines, from Grandcourt, along the lower slopes of the ridge, to

14678-456: The Kaiser started to secure his palace; when the war began Falkenhayn viewed this with enthusiasm. He assured the Kaiser that the German Army was ready for the conflict. He told the chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg that "Even if we perish over this, it will still have been worth it". Falkenhayn succeeded Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, who was considered mentally unstable, as Chief of

14857-675: The Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma Gandhi . Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed

15036-814: The Ottomans joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east, but its advance was halted in September , and by the end of the year the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. Italy , Bulgaria , Romania , Greece and others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917,

15215-548: The Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War , much to the surprise of outside observers. The Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia . The Russian government decided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through

15394-616: The Romanian forces. Falkenhayn delayed the offensive against Romanian forces and as a result came into conflict with Archduke Karl of Austria, who would later become Charles I of Austria . He justified the postponement by pointing to the bad conditions of roads. Even with the conflict with the Austrian Army, in late 1916 and early 1917, Falkenhayn and Mackensen were able to drive the Romanian forces into Russia. Following his success at Brașov, Romania in mid-July 1917, Falkenhayn went to take over

15573-606: The Russian Stavka agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany

15752-579: The Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac on 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece. After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against

15931-588: The Southern Carpathians and forcing the shattered Romanian forces north-east into Moldavia . Winston Churchill considered him to be the ablest of the German generals in World War I. Trevor Dupuy also ranked him near the top of the German commanders, just below Hindenburg and Ludendorff. Robert Foley wrote that Germany's enemies were far more able to apply a strategy of attrition, because they had greater amounts of manpower, industry and economic control over

16110-678: The West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat , and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000. German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, but von Kluck used this freedom to disobey orders, opening

16289-703: The Western Front, General Erich Falkenhayn Chief of the General Staff at the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, German army high command) instituted a construction plan in January 1915, by which the western armies would create field fortifications built to a common system, intended to economise on infantry, while offensive operations were conducted on the Eastern Front . Barbed-wire obstacles had been enlarged from one belt 5–10 yd (4.6–9.1 m) wide to two belts 30 yd (27 m) wide and about 15 yd (14 m) apart. The front line had been increased from one trench to three, about 150–200 yd (140–180 m) apart,

16468-430: The Younger . Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine , which was the strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII . However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as

16647-539: The Younger and Hindenburg were highly critical of Falkenhayn and sought to have him dismissed, the Emperor continued to support him. Falkenhayn did not perceive the need to deploy troops on the Vistula , he favoured sending troops to East Prussia, where the Russians took advantage of the weakening 8th Army . A Breakthrough Army ( Durchbruchsarmee ) for an offensive down the Somme river valley, consisting of nine new divisions,

16826-446: The aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July. That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours. A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war. The German General Staff had long assumed they faced

17005-500: The area from the Somme northwards to the Ancre, subsided into minor line-straightening attacks by both sides. The primacy of artillery had been established during the fighting of 1914 and the exploitation of artillery fire power in defensive fighting, required means of communication between the front line and artillery positions in the rear. The command of artillery needed to be centralised to make sure that all guns in range engaged targets. In late December 1915, Major Bornemann, commander of

17184-437: The area to attack from Goat Redoubt and Grandcourt and then Oberstleutnant Bram, the commander of BRIR 8 arrived. In the confusion the counter-attack could not be co-ordinated and began piecemeal, with units joining in as they came up. The concentrated bombardment from 9:00 to 10:00 p.m. demolished the remnants of the redoubt and soon after the infantry attacked, the remaining British troops retreated. Artillery support for

17363-524: The artillery commanders should draw up gridded drawings of targets within range. When British aircraft were overhead, battery positions should cease fire to remain hidden and German aircraft units should be contacted to drive the British away. Bornemann suggested that artillery group commanders should have control of all artillery ammunition allotted to the group and that artillery regimental headquarters should be responsible for replacing stocks and passing on demands for more ammunition to higher headquarters. On

17542-527: The artillery. Retaliatory fire should be prompt and authority to order fire should be shared by all artillery officers, rather than relying on unreliable communications to request authority to fire on targets as they were observed. Bornemann recommended that if a British artillery battery was detected, it should be engaged with 200 rounds immediately. Co-operation with artillery observers in aircraft and balloons should be improved, with at least one target selected for bombardment in every aircraft sortie, for which

17721-492: The attack and directed artillery fire on German guns with zone calls, intended to suppress as much German artillery as possible rather than to destroy just a few guns. The German defences opposite the 36th (Ulster) Division had been more severely damaged than positions further south. Front line trenches had been demolished, barbed wire had been swept aside and dug outs caved in, which caused the 9th Company of III battalion, RIR 99 many casualties. The British advanced too quickly for

17900-466: The attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania . The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo . Montenegro covered

18079-418: The attack of the 36th (Ulster) Division beyond the German front line, where it was out of view from the British lines. At 2:00 p.m., a 4 Squadron observer reported that German artillery from Grandcourt to Courcelette, was moving to the rear and at 4:30 p.m., that there was no sign of German troops massing against the redoubt. After an hour, the 36th (Ulster) Division was reported to still hold The Crucifix, to

18258-563: The attack was cancelled. IR 66 spent 5–13 September digging new shelters in Schwaben Redoubt but failed to conceal the work and British artillery maintained a slow bombardment by super-heavy artillery, which could demolish even the deepest dug-outs. The area to the right (east) of Schwaben Redoubt was attacked by the 53rd Brigade of the 18th (Eastern) Division during the Battle of Thiepval Ridge (26–28 September) . The 8th Suffolk captured Schwabengraben (Schwabian Trench) in

18437-660: The battles in Artois and at the Battle of Hébuterne near Serre in 1915 and at the Battle of Verdun in 1916, were incorporated into new defensive works as the signs of a British offensive on the Somme front multiplied. More fortifications were built, especially in the intermediate, second and third positions, near the Schwaben and Grallsberg redoubts. New battery positions were built to accommodate artillery reinforcements, dugouts were deepened and extra exits were added. Engineers sited and designed new trenches and stringently inspected

18616-487: The benefit of hindsight, he remarked that the German declarations of war on Russia and France in 1914 were "justifiable but overly-hasty and unnecessary". Falkenhayn died in 1922, at Schloss Lindstedt , near Potsdam and was buried in Potsdam. In 1886, Falkenhayn married Ida Selkmann (1866–1964), with whom he had a son, Fritz Georg Adalbert von Falkenhayn (1890–1973), and a daughter, Erika Karola Olga von Falkenhayn (1904–1974), who married Henning von Tresckow (1901–1944),

18795-535: The best way of achieving this. However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement. On 23   July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25   July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in

18974-483: The border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion. Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3   August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which

19153-424: The building work performed by the infantry. In early March 1916 and from 15 to 19 May, the chief engineer of the 2nd Army inspected the first position in the area of the 26th Reserve Division; only in the area of Reserve IR 119 at Beaumont Hamel and the trenches to the west around Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt, were there enough shell-proof concrete posts. By July 1916, the German front line from Thiepval to St Pierre Divion

19332-480: The campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army. Upon mobilisation, in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan , 80% of the German Army was located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier,

19511-636: The capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina . Cvjetko Popović , Gavrilo Princip , Nedeljko Čabrinović , Trifko Grabež , Vaso Čubrilović ( Bosnian Serbs ) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community), from the movement known as Young Bosnia , took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw

19690-434: The captured position, handed it over intact to the relieving platoons of A Company. On 1 July, the 36th (Ulster) Division suffered 5,104 casualties and the 49th (West Riding) Division suffered 590. By the time the 49th (West Riding) Division was relieved by the 25th Division on 19 August, its casualties had risen to 5,175. The attack of 3 September cost the 25th Division more than 1,200 casualties. Casualties suffered by

19869-405: The centre of the right wing of the German armies in the west and ordered the southern armies to dig in, part of the beginning of trench warfare . The responsibility of Falkenhayn increased when the Kaiser failed to decide a grand strategy. Falkenhayn did not want diplomatic interference in the course of war. For the first few weeks, lack of success led to widespread criticism. Falkenhayn recognized

20048-568: The chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war. As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the First Battle of the Marne , Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already." On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa (now Samoa ). On 11 September,

20227-511: The cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS  Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses,

20406-513: The creation of new independent states, including Poland , Finland , the Baltic states , Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia . The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Before World War II , the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply

20585-449: The creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed wire , machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery , which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and

20764-946: The crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna". Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo . Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as

20943-449: The divisions in front of Verdun until casualties reached 50 per cent of the infantry, and then relieved them. The procession of divisions back and forth was analogous to the operation of a " noria ", a type of water-wheel that continuously lifts water and empties it into a trough. On 27 August 1916 Falkenhayn received news that the Kingdom of Romania had declared war on Austria-Hungary. After

21122-514: The dug-outs were on the perimeter, at trench junctions (clockwise from north, using the English names), Irwin Trench (strong points 49 and 69), Lucky Way (strong point 27), Stuff Trench, Hessian Trench (strong point 45), Martin's Lane, the Strasburg Line (strong point 19) and Clay Trench (strong point 99). Inside the redoubt, along an inner trench on the south-west face, were strong points 65, 37 and 39. Beyond

21301-671: The expansion of the French colonial empire . In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors , which included Austria-Hungary , Russia and Germany. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War , the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans , an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed

21480-400: The first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun , lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but

21659-655: The first trench ( Kampfgraben ) to be occupied by sentry groups, the second ( Wohngraben ) to accommodate the front-trench garrison and the third trench in which local reserves would assemble. The trenches were to be traversed and have sentry-posts in concrete recesses in the parapet. Dugouts were to be deepened from 6–9 ft (1.8–2.7 m) to 20–30 ft (6.1–9.1 m), set 50 yd (46 m) apart and be large enough for 25 men each. An intermediate line of strong points (the Stützpunktlinie ) designed for all-round defence, about 1,000 yd (910 m) behind

21838-424: The front line was also to be built. Communication trenches were to be dug back to the enlarged reserve line, renamed the second position, which was as well built and wired as the first position. The second position was built beyond the range of opposing field artillery, to force an attacker to stop and move guns and ammunition forward before assaulting the line. Behind the German front line, the ground rose steeply to

22017-586: The front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive , after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole , and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold

22196-526: The globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was the SMS ; Emden , part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at Qingdao , which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron

22375-458: The ground to the south and St Pierre Divion to the north-west. With Stuff and Pommiers redoubts, the Germans had observation in all directions and garrisons which could reinforce the front line or deliver a counter-attack. Schwaben Redoubt had deep dugouts for accommodation with several entrances each, a battalion command post, first aid post, signalling station and strong points, with three heavy machine-guns and four light machine-guns. Many of

22554-534: The high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres , the Germans (violating the Hague Convention ) used chlorine gas for

22733-600: The information had been communicated. The gunners should avoid settling into routine firing, since prisoners had reported that its predictability made it easy to evade; limiting firing to the area in front of batteries should cease and oblique firing into adjacent sectors begin, to ensure that British artillery could not fire with impunity from the flanks. Concentrations of fire consumed too much ammunition on local targets and should be limited to conserve ammunition for firing on other targets, to disrupt British operations and to reassure German infantry that they would not be abandoned by

22912-467: The investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade . Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as

23091-425: The last part of the redoubt by 11:00 p.m., taking about 150 prisoners of II Battalion, RIR 110. Three German counter-attacks on 15 October, supported by Flammenwerfer detachments were defeated. A German attack on Schwaben Redoubt, early on 21 October was repulsed and a British attack planned for the afternoon caught the Germans while still disorganised. Observers from 4 Squadron and 7 Squadron RFC watched

23270-405: The left, the 7th Queen's advance on the redoubt, drifted to the left but managed to get into the southern face of the redoubt and take fifty prisoners. The battalion also managed to take the south-west corner, then attempted to attack to the north but was stopped and established a barricade. By 5:00 p.m., all of the south face had been captured and the troops were ordered to dig in. The capture of

23449-463: The left, was caught by machine-gun fire from the Pope's Nose and the right-hand battalion failed to reach the German front trench. The left-hand battalion reached the front trench but was not able to reach the support trench. Visual signalling failed in the mist and few runners got through the German standing barrage, which left the situation at the front unclear, until stragglers began to appear. By 7:30 a.m.,

23628-455: The line north of Thiepval, was broken through and the attackers rushed Schwaben Redoubt around 8:00 a.m. The garrison, a support company standing by to reinforce the front defences, was surprised and surrendered after brief resistance. The centre battalion of RIR 99 had been destroyed in the breakthrough and 500 men taken prisoner. An attack towards the Grandcourt Line ran into the British barrage, then fell back to Schwaben Redoubt and

23807-417: The line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. Erich Falkenhayn General Erich Georg Sebastian Anton von Falkenhayn (11 September 1861 – 8 April 1922) was a German general who was the second Chief of the German General Staff of the First World War from September 1914 until 29 August 1916. Falkenhayn replaced General Helmuth von Moltke the Younger after his invasion of France

23986-460: The ocean, even to neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. The Battle of Jutland in May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of

24165-457: The open opposite the south-eastern corner of Schwaben Redoubt. The fourth company of the battalion, had been intended to move along Hessen Weg , so joined the other three companies. By 6:00 p.m., troops in the original front line near St Pierre Divion, had bombed southwards and recovered some of the captured front line. The advance up the Hansalinie had reached the north face of the redoubt and then been repulsed, during an attempt rush

24344-533: The order and tried to seize the city. French artillery on the west back of the Meuse began to inflict many casualties on the 5th Army. Because more than a quarter of a million soldiers during the battle eventually died, Falkenhayn was sometimes called "the Blood-Miller of Verdun". Contrary to Falkenhayn's expectations, the French were able to limit casualties in the divisions sent to Verdun, General Philippe Pétain kept

24523-407: The party struggle and the influence of ambitious party leaders has it become what it is: the secure defence of peace at home and abroad". Militarily, Falkenhayn had a mixed record. His offensive at Verdun proved a strategic failure. During the campaign against Romania in 1916 Falkenhayn demonstrated considerable skill in command of the 9th Army, driving the Romanians from Transylvania, breaking through

24702-628: The pending failure of the Schlieffen-Moltke Plan and attempted to outflank the British and French in the Race to the Sea , a series of meeting engagements in northern France and Belgium, in which each side made reciprocal attempts to turn the other's flank, until they reached the North Sea coast and ran out of room for manoeuvre. In November 1914, Falkenhayn acknowledged that Germany would not be able to gain

24881-522: The population of Jerusalem during the harsh winter months had also been planned by Djemal Pasha and was thwarted by German officers including Falkenhayn. In February 1918, Falkenhayn became commander of the 10th Army in Belarus . The unit carried out the occupation tasks in Belarus after Treaty of Brest-Litovsk . As an Army unit commander, he witnessed the end of the war in Belarus. In December 1918 he oversaw

25060-789: The protection of the " cruiser rules ", which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare , realising the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys , escorted by destroyers . This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after

25239-413: The redoubt and sent a battalion of Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 8 (BRIR 8) as reinforcements. Auwäter ordered the counter-attack to begin immediately by three groups, from the north-east, east and south-east, to forestall a wheeling movement against Thiepval and Ovillers. Delays caused to message runners by the British bombardment, held back the counter-attack until 4:00 p.m. 4 Squadron RFC observed

25418-410: The redoubt and the Hansalinie because of smoke and dust in the air. Only when the Irish advanced on the Grandcourt Line, was the identity of the troops visible in the area discovered. As soon as the British bombardment lifted, the only reserves nearby, the recruit battalion of IR 180 and a machine-gun company, occupied the Grandcourt Line around Thiepval. The 107th Brigade advanced to the A Line but

25597-638: The redoubt lies between the Thiepval Memorial and the Ulster Tower . The 26th ( Württemberg ) Reserve Division ( Generalmajor [Major-General] Franz von Soden) of the XIV Reserve Corps ( Generalleutnant [Lieutenant-General] Hermann von Stein ), arrived on the Somme in late September 1914, attempting to advance westwards towards Amiens. By 7 October, the advance had ended; any cover had been occupied and temporary scrapes improvised. Fighting in

25776-399: The redoubt on 1 July 1916, until forced out by German artillery-fire and counter-attacks after dark. The British kept the area of the redoubt under bombardment until 3 September, when the 49th (West Riding) Division attacked the area from the west, in a morning fog. The 36th (Ulster) Division infantry got across no man's land but were defeated when German artillery and machine gun-fire swept

25955-610: The redoubt. By 7:00 p.m. another rush on the south-eastern corner, by IR 180 had failed and more piecemeal attacks from all round the redoubt were driven off, with many casualties. Messages were sent back to the 26th Division headquarters for a bombardment and at 9:00 p.m., the divisional artillery began to fire on the redoubt, from the north-east to the south-east for one hour. The German infantry attacked again, supported by two battalions of IR 185, which had arrived from reserve at Beugny at about 10:00 p.m. and attacked from Stuff and Zollern redoubts. In costly hand-to-hand fighting,

26134-707: The relative failure at Verdun, coupled with reverses on the Eastern Front (the Brusilov Offensive and the entry of Romania into the war), the beginning of the Anglo-French offensive on the Somme and the intrigues of Hindenburg and Ludendorff, Falkenhayn was replaced as chief of staff by Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Falkenhayn then assumed command of the 9th Army in Transylvania (6 September 1916) and in August launched

26313-435: The rest of the redoubt at 10:00 a.m., through deep mud which impeded movement and no ground was gained. In early October, the 39th Division took over from the 18th Division. Attacks by RIR 110 of the 28th Reserve Division, which had relieved the 26th Reserve Division, were made from 7 to 8 October. The German attacks were supported by Flammenwerfer detachments and repulsed by two 117th Brigade battalions. At 4:30 a.m.,

26492-490: The scepticism of the Ministry of War to airships, made by Ferdinand von Zeppelin , was justified. He tried to use the airships and develop rapidly the air force. Wild von Hohenborn was appointed minister of war and on 20 January 1915, Falkenhayn was promoted to General der Infanterie . As the chief of staff, Falkenhayn had many enemies because of his strategic thinking but he had Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf , chief of staff of

26671-461: The south bank of the Ancre, the 36th (Ulster) Division objective was set at the fifth line of German trenches, known as the D Line, with the right flank at sector D 8. The ground rose in a convex slope to the top of Bazentin Ridge, towards Schwaben Redoubt and a series of parallel trenches, from the B Line to the C Line. The attack front was divided into two sections south of the Ancre, to be attacked by

26850-415: The south face of Schwaben Redoubt was observed by the crews of RFC contact patrols and artillery observation aircraft directed artillery-fire, which destroyed 16 gun pits, damaged fifteen and destroyed nine ammunition pits. Poor weather restricted flying on 29 September but the next day was bright and low-flying sorties discovered that most of the Schwaben Redoubt had been captured. On 29 September,

27029-457: The south-east of the redoubt. Two companies of pioneers tried to dig a communication trench across no man's land but at 2:00 p.m. the attempt was abandoned, which left parties carrying supplies no alternative but to stop or be annihilated as they crossed no man's land in the open. Supplies ran out on the German side and German counter-attacks began on the right flank, at Schwaben Redoubt and The Crucifix, despite an accurate flank barrage from

27208-630: The south-west face, in the maze of trenches towards Thiepval to the south and St Pierre Divion to the north-west, were nine more strong points. The redoubt was triangular, with an extension to the east across the Thiepval–Grandcourt road and had a frontage of around 1,600 ft (500 m). At the end of July 1915, fresh troops were observed moving into the French positions north of the Somme, opposite Reserve Infantry Regiment 99 (RIR 99) and on 1 August, were identified at Thiepval Wood as British soldiers ("dressed in brown suits"). Lessons learned during

27387-423: The survivors of the 146th Brigade had returned to the British front line. On the right, the infantry of the 147th Brigade defended the German front trench until they ran out of hand grenades and then dribbled back, until about 10:00 p.m. A second attack was planned but the retreat of the 147th Brigade led to a postponement and when the state of the attacking battalions, which had lost 1,200 casualties became known,

27566-464: The term First World War was in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who stated, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word." For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power , known as the Concert of Europe . After 1848, this

27745-682: The threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It

27924-433: The tunnels housed two mortars. Field artillery support was to come from the 36th (Ulster) divisional artillery, part of the 49th (West Riding) divisional artillery and a regiment of French guns. A large number of heavy guns under the command of X Corps was also to fire on the 36th (Ulster) Division front. The preliminary bombardment of five days' duration was extended by two more, due to wet weather and observers reported that

28103-405: The village on the right; the attack on Schwaben Redoubt was postponed. On 28 September, the 53rd Brigade formed up for the attack, on tapes facing north-west from Zollern Trench, the left-hand battalion to capture the redoubt. The advance began at 1:00 p.m. and easily captured Bulgar Trench. The Midway Line held out for longer but the area east of redoubt was approached by 2:30 p.m. On

28282-577: The war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably the Treaty of Versailles , by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay large war reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in

28461-581: The war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates of Togoland and Kamerun . On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa , led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck , fought

28640-418: The west , which despite initial successes left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive from August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at home , Kaiser Wilhelm   II abdicated on 9 November, and

28819-419: The west at 9:00 p.m., forced the defenders of the north face back to the Stuff Trench junction. The 55th Brigade in the Schwaben Redoubt, was attacked by II Battalion, IR 66 at 5:15 a.m. on 2 October, which gained a small area after a bombing fight had lasted all day. Both sides resumed bombing on 4 October, with no advantage gained by either side. Next day, the 8th Norfolks , tried a converging attack on

28998-426: The west end of Thiepval and advance about 0.5 mi (0.80 km) to Schwaben Redoubt. The battalion on the right captured the east end of Thiepval and the left hand battalion managed to get halfway through the west end of the village. A third battalion sent forward as a reinforcement, was severely bombarded by German artillery as it moved forward and the survivors dug in with the leading battalions, just ahead of

29177-409: The west for 1,000 yd (910 m), to the top of Thiepval ridge, 250 ft (76 m) higher than the Ancre valley. Construction of a small network of trenches, known as Schwaben Schanze ( Swabian Fieldworks ), began on the ridge in early 1915, roughly 2,300 ft (700 m) north of Thiepval , at the northern and highest point on the ridge. About 600 yd (550 m) further back,

29356-432: The withdrawal of the 10th Army to Germany. The formation disbanded in February 1919 and Falkenhayn retired from the army following the dissolution of his unit. In 1919, Falkenhayn retired from the army and withdrew to his estate, where he wrote his autobiography and several books on war and strategy. His war memoirs were translated into English as The German General staff and Its Critical Decisions, 1914–1916 (1919). With

29535-404: The world, resorting to many of the methods used by Falkenhayn in Russia in 1915 and France in 1916. As the cost of fighting the war increased, the war aims of the Entente expanded, to include the overthrow of the political elites of the Central Powers and the ability to dictate peace to a comprehensively defeated enemy, which was achieved by a strategy of attrition. During his term as the Chief of

29714-432: Was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic. The causes of World War I included the rise of Germany and decline of the Ottoman Empire , which disturbed the long-standing balance of power in Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered by industrialisation and imperialism . Growing tensions between the great powers and in the Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when

29893-403: Was born in Burg Belchau , a village near Graudenz , now Białochowo in Poland, to Fedor von Falkenhayn (1814–1896) and Franziska von Falkenhayn, née von Rosenberg (1826–1888). His ancestors could be traced to 1504. His brother Arthur (1857–1929) became tutor of Crown Prince Wilhelm and another brother Eugen (1853–1934) became a Prussian General of Cavalry . His only sister Olga von Falkenhayn

30072-403: Was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation , the decline of the Ottoman Empire , New Imperialism , and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck . Victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire . Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was to avenge this defeat, but by the early 1890s, this had switched to

30251-526: Was formed in the first quarter of 1915 but three divisions were not ready in time. The new army was transferred to the Eastern Front and was re-named the 11th Army. The army had success during the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes but creating more new divisions was difficult because of the shortage of junior officers and equipment. Falkenhayn found that the Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches (Imperial German Flying Corps, Die Fliegertruppe ), needed to be expanded. Falkenhayn noticed that

30430-415: Was lost and one battalion missed the Pope's Nose salient; isolated groups of Germans held out in parts the front line. Machine-gun fire from III Battalion, IR 66 of the 52nd Division, which had just relieved III Battalion, IR 180 at Schwaben Redoubt and the Strasburg Line, swept the British attackers and then both battalions counter-attacked with bombing parties from both battalions. The 146th Brigade on

30609-503: Was met by machine-gun fire but a party of about fifty men reached an artillery position in a fold known as Artilleriemulde (Boom Ravine), in front of the Grandcourt Line. Other groups got into the line further south, where it was unoccupied. By 10:00 a.m. the breakthrough on the 26th Reserve Division front had made Thiepval vulnerable to an attack from the redoubt, which would make the village untenable. Soden ordered General Auwäter, commander of Reserve Infantry Brigade 52, to recapture

30788-407: Was obstructed by sixteen rows of barbed wire and the second line lay behind five rows. Shell-proof dug outs 30 ft (9.1 m) deep, could accommodate all of the trench garrison. In the British front sector allocated to X Corps (Lieutenant-General Thomas Morland ) at Thiepval, the Royal Engineers dug a series of Russian saps into no man's land , ready to be opened at Zero Hour and allow

30967-436: Was promoted to Oberst (colonel). On 27 January 1911, Falkenhayn was appointed as the commander of the 4th Guards Regiment. On 20 February 1913, he became the chief of staff of the IV Corps and Generalmajor on 22 April 1912. Before becoming Prussian Minister of War, he was posted to the General Staff for a year as the Supply department head of the General Staff. Despite being a department head, Falkenhayn did not play

31146-654: Was refused. Early on the morning of 4   August, the Germans invaded, and Albert I of Belgium called for assistance under the Treaty of London . Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Beginning on 12 August,

31325-600: Was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra , these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany . This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law. Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of

31504-451: Was stopped at the First Battle of the Marne and was in turn removed on 29 August 1916 after the failure of his offensive strategy in the west at the Battle of Verdun , the opening of the Battle of the Somme , the Brusilov Offensive and the Romanian entry into the war. Having planned to win the war before 1917, the German army was reduced to hanging on. Falkenhayn was given important field commands in Romania and Syria. His reputation as

31683-586: Was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire by Wilhelm II . The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor , Leo von Caprivi . This gave France an opening to agree the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which was then followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention . While not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became

31862-463: Was the mother of Field Marshal Fedor von Bock . Becoming a cadet at the age of 11, Falkenhayn joined the Army in 1880 as Second Lieutenant . He served as an infantry and staff officer. He became First Lieutenant in 1889 and Hauptmann (captain) in 1893, subsequently transferring to the topographical department of the German General Staff . He was seen as a capable, deliberate officer with an open mind. Between 1896 and 1903 Falkenhayn took

32041-513: Was to capture the A and B Lines and then dig in along the C Line at the north-east corner of Schwaben Redoubt, with a detachment posted as a flank guard to the left and to send a party northwards, to observe the ground along the Grandcourt–St Pierre Divion road, as two platoons advanced along the A and B Lines to St Pierre Divion. The attack on the D Line was to be made by the 107th Brigade with three battalions. The attacking battalions were to advance in eight waves at 50 yd (46 m) intervals and

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