School discipline relates to actions taken by teachers or school organizations toward students when their behavior disrupts the ongoing educational activity or breaks a rule created by the school. Discipline can guide the children's behavior or set limits to help them learn to take better care of themselves, other people and the world around them.
144-513: School systems set rules, and if students break these rules they are subject to discipline. These rules may, for example, define the expected standards of school uniforms, punctuality, social conduct, and work ethic. The term "discipline" is applied to the action that is the consequence of breaking the rules. The aim of discipline is to set limits restricting certain behaviors or attitudes that are seen as harmful or against school policies, educational norms, school traditions, etc. The focus of discipline
288-474: A master script. Swartz defines this term as an account of the reality that advances and reaffirms white people's dominance in American society through the centering of white achievements and experiences, while consistently omitting, simplifying, and "distorting" non-white peoples (p. 341–342). As an example, Powell and Frankenstein (1997) draw attention to Eurocentrism in the field of mathematics, arguing that
432-425: A "2 percentage points to approximately 14 percent" decline. Additionally, students with Black male teachers within the study had a reduced disciplinary rate by "15 to 13 percent". The study suggests that school districts with an increased percentage of Black students may exhibit lower rates of punitive disciplinary actions for Black students with disabilities and have a lessened gap between Black and white students. In
576-445: A "disparate treatment" theory is a "disparate impact" theory. A disparate impact violation is when an employer is shown to have used a specific employment practice, neutral on its face but that caused a substantial adverse impact to a protected group, and cannot be justified as serving a legitimate business goal for the employer. No proof of intentional discrimination is necessary. The disparate treatment theory has application also in
720-635: A 2.5. For Black students, popularity declines at a 3.5 GPA. For white students, this relationship does not appear to exist. White supremacy in curriculum may contribute to the perpetuation of white supremacy in society in general, affecting future generations. Huber et al. (2006) note that Euro- or white-centric curriculum can contribute to normalizing racial inequality and tolerating white dominance (p. 193). Brown and Brown (2010) also state that, if schools continue not teaching about systemic racism, students will grow up to be "apathetic" about Black victims of mass incarceration and gun-related violence, as well as
864-403: A beneficial education while low-SES families are not usually able to ensure the same educational quality for their children. This results in children of less wealthy families performing less well in schools than children of wealthier families. There are several factors that contribute to this disparity; these factors narrow into two main subjects: resources and environment. The type of environment
1008-679: A court will likely not view its actions as arbitrary and capricious. In schools, restorative justice is an offshoot of the model used by some courts and law enforcement; it seeks to repair the harm that has been done by acknowledging the impact on the victim, community, and offender, accepting responsibility for the wrongdoing, and repairing the harm that was caused. Restorative practices can "also include preventive measures designed to build skills and capacity in students as well as adults." Some examples of preventative measures in restorative practices might include teachers and students devising classroom expectations together or setting up community building in
1152-625: A decrease in academic motivation. Most experts agree that it takes students around 5–7 years to learn academic English, which, in a school setting, can place ELL students behind their English-speaking classmates. K–12 Education at the K–12 level is important in setting students up for future success. However, in the United States, there are persisting inequalities in elementary, junior high, and high school that lead to many detrimental effects for low-income students of color. One indicator of inequality
1296-441: A detention room available daily, but many will require a student to return to school 1–2 hours after school ends on a specific day, e.g. "Friday Night Detention". Failure to attend detention without a valid excuse can sometimes result in another being added, or a more severe punishment being administered, such as an in school or out of school suspension. In Germany, detention is less common. In some states like Baden-Württemberg there
1440-459: A disparate impact on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." An employer may defend against liability by demonstrating that the practice is "job related for the position in question and consistent with business necessity." Even if the employer meets that burden, however, a plaintiff may still succeed by showing that the employer refuses to adopt an available alternative employment practice that has less disparate impact and serves
1584-591: A form of discrimination. The Education Department's Office for Civil Rights is tasked with deciding whether or not to investigate students' reports of disciplinary racial discrimination. Former United States Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos enacted delays and eliminations of student discipline guidance under the United States Education Department . In 2016, the Obama administration required states to address racial disparities in special education under
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#17328525649571728-475: A group of African-American students and a group of white students with the same measured ability. However, the African Americans did worse when the test was presented as a measure of their intellect, but matched their white peers' performance when they were told the test did not reflect intellectual ability. Other studies have analyzed the different majors that students choose and how these majors hold up in
1872-409: A higher rate than white students. Despite these rates, there are multiple federal laws against racial discrimination in schools. There are two groups for these laws: disparate treatment and disparate impact . Disparate treatment laws allow students the right to testify against schools and school districts for intentional racial discrimination. Under the equal protection and due process clauses of
2016-500: A higher-paying job. Not only do Black and Hispanic people have less access to universities, they face many inequities while they attend and while applying to postgraduate programs. For most of history, Black Americans were not admitted into these institutions and were generally dissuaded from pursuing higher education. Even though laws have been enacted to make access to higher education more equal, racial inequalities today continue to prevent completely equal access. One study found that
2160-495: A homogeneous public education system have higher amounts of inter-generational social mobility. In comparison, private education systems can lead to higher inequality and less mobility. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth has also noted that students who attend private schools tend to earn more in their careers compared to their public-school counterparts. As of 2015, there were nearly 5 million English language learner (ELL) students enrolled in U.S. public schools and they are
2304-411: A large margin, Black and Hispanic students have the least access to the internet along with those of the lowest median income quarter. These low-SES families settle down where there jobs are available, and are less able to "shop" for school districts. Clusters of low-SES families are typically located within worse school districts. The families are not in a position to donate to their children's school and
2448-563: A larger scale, urban educational institutions with a predominantly Black student body yield higher rates of punitive disciplinary actions in comparison to institutions with a predominantly white student body. Black students attending urban educational institutions are more likely to receive suspension and to be arrested than white students. On a smaller scale, rural school districts with a larger portion of Black students also yield higher rates of punitive disciplinary actions than predominantly white school districts. Individual school districts within
2592-482: A loss of privilege policy that prohibits students returning from an out-of-school suspension from participating in the above mentioned school sponsored activities for as long as 2 weeks. Schools are usually required to notify the student's parents/guardians and sometimes social worker if the suspended student is in special education, and explain the reason for and duration of a suspension. Students involved in physical altercations on campus can be suspended from school for
2736-494: A low-SES neighborhood has many implications in terms of education. Among them are "greater chances of having a child before age 18; lesser chances of graduating from high school; and earning lower wages as a young adult. Experiencing more neighborhood poverty as a child is also associated with a lower rate of college graduation." The neighborhood effect is mitigated when students who grow up in low-SES neighborhoods move to high-SES neighborhoods. These students are more likely to reap
2880-480: A more effective way and help students learn better. Another key recommendation is to hold African-American students to the same academic levels and expectations as white students. Expecting the same level of greatness helps African-American students develop more successfully and confidently in their academic journey. A range of scholars beginning at least the late 19th century has produced arguments that white supremacy exists in U.S. school curriculum, oftentimes to
3024-538: A more stressful environment than higher-SES children. They worry about problems a lack of money in the household could create (such as bills and food). This stress manifests itself all throughout a student's learning career. Statistically, students coming from higher-poverty areas graduate college at nearly half the rate of students from a lower-poverty school. There is great variation in the resources available to children in schools. Higher-SES families can invest more into their children's education. This ability manifests in
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#17328525649573168-513: A nominated school in which all excluded students are collected; this typically has a much higher staffing level than mainstream schools. In some US public schools, expulsions are so serious that they require an appearance before the Board of Education or the court system. In the UK, head teachers may make the decision to exclude, but the student's parents have the right of appeal to the local education authority. It
3312-465: A number of theories to form a comprehensive discipline strategy for an entire school or a particular class. Some scholars think students misbehave because of the lack of engagement and stimulation in typical school settings, a rigid definition of acceptable behaviors and a lack of attention and love in a student's personal life. In the United States, scholars have begun to explore alternative explanations for why students are being disciplined, in particular
3456-415: A period of 5 days, while students who throw temper tantrums on campus, direct foul language at school staff members, or engage in verbal altercations with fellow students can be suspended for 3 days. Students are often required to continue to learn and complete assignments during their suspension, sometimes receiving no credit for it. This could include a written essay stating that they will not engage again in
3600-428: A protected characteristic compared to others. Title VII prohibits employers from treating applicants or employees differently because of their membership in a protected class . A disparate treatment violation is made out when an individual of a protected group is shown to have been singled out and treated less favorably than others similarly situated on the basis of an impermissible criterion under Title VII. The issue
3744-519: A serious disadvantage when compared to their peers. There is a strong association between English-language ability and the success of students in school. ELL students have disproportionately high dropout rates, low graduation rates, and low college completion rates. A potential cause of ELL students' lack of achievement is communication difficulties that can arise between student and teacher. Many educators may treat students with low English proficiency as slow learners or intellectually disadvantaged. There
3888-528: A state have jurisdiction to implement and enforce education-related policies within their educational institutions. Dependent on a school district's approach to resolving behavioral conflicts, the disparities between rates and intensity of discipline between white and Black students can intensify or lessen. The subjectivity of approach to behavioral policies allows for external factors such as socioeconomic and racial demographic factors to feature into an institution's utilization of disciplinary actions. An example of
4032-399: A student lives in is a determinant of the education they receive. The environment a child is raised in shapes their perceptions of education. In low-SES homes, literacy is not stressed as much as it is in high-SES homes. It has been shown that wealthier parents spend more time talking to their children, which builds their vocabulary early on and enhances their literacy skills. In a study from
4176-646: A study from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 showed that two teachers who teach the same students can disagree on the expectations of the student's academic career and, in the case of African-American students, the belief in question was that they will achieve less academically. This study found that African-American teachers have greater expectations for African-American children succeeding academically than non-African-American teachers. Additionally, these disparities were more pronounced in white male teachers of African-American female students. It
4320-449: A teacher reprimand or seat reassignment), low-income students are reported to receive more severe consequences, sometimes delivered in a less-than-professional manner (e.g. being yelled at in front of class, being made to stand in the hallway all day, or having their personal belongings searched). Some researchers argue that zero-tolerance discipline policies in effect criminalize infractions such as dress-code violations or talking back to
4464-608: A teacher, and that these policies disproportionately target disadvantaged students. Due to increased suspension and expulsion rates, black students are losing instructional time by spending more time away from the classroom. Lost instructional time can result in lower retainment levels of educational material, lower graduation rates, and higher drop-out rates. Higher rates of punishment in schools can increase interactions between black students and law enforcement when black students are punished with referrals to law enforcement for disciplinary infractions. Referrals to law enforcement following
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4608-477: A truancy education program. Socioeconomic factors—lack of transportation, acting as a caregiver for siblings, etc.-- that affect a student's attendance and likelihood of penal punishments disproportionately affects low-income black students. Another approach that some U.S. school districts have used to reduce truancy is rehabilitating students and accounting for external factors. For example, the office of Alameda County Assistant District Attorney Teresa Drenick within
4752-420: A white-culture-normative society. In this case, academic success is coupled with accepting Eurocentric practices in schools, which means self-disenfranchisement. This social stigma of "acting white" may discourage striving for academic success among Black and Hispanic students. Fryer (2012) explains that Hispanic students' popularity starts to decline relative to their grade point average (GPA) after they attain
4896-591: Is a more general term. Discipline is typically thought to have a positive influence on both the individual as well as the classroom environment. Utilizing disciplinary actions can be an opportunity for the class to reflect and learn about consequences, instill collective values, and encourage behavior that is acceptable for the classroom. Recognition of the diversity of values within communities can increase understanding and tolerance of different disciplinary techniques. In particular, moderate interventions such as encouraging positive corrections of questionable behavior inside
5040-414: Is as follows: The plaintiff in a disparate treatment case need only prove that membership in a protected class was a motivating factor in the employment decision, not that it was the sole factor. One's membership in a protected class will be considered a motivating factor when it contributes to the employment decision. If the employer proves that it had another reason for its actions and it would have made
5184-636: Is associated with county-level rates of racial bias." Other high-powered studies have shown "increased racial and gender disproportionality for subjectively defined behaviors in classrooms, and for incidents classified as more severe", and that "Black-White disciplinary gaps . . . emerge as early as in prekindergarten and widen with grade progression." Such disparities in exclusionary forms of discipline have been shown to be mitigated in classrooms run by African-American teachers, with especially strong mitigation of office referrals for subjectively defined behavior such as "willful defiance". When disparities occur within
5328-485: Is detention to rework missed school hours, but in others like Rheinland-Pfalz it is prohibited by law. In schools where some classes are held on Saturdays, pupils may get detention on a Saturday even if it is a non-school day for them. In China, long-time detention is perhaps less common than in the US, the UK, Ireland, Singapore, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and some other countries. However, short-time detention by
5472-605: Is enacted, such as suspension or expulsion. According to a study published by the Association for Psychological Science , teachers often recognize second offenses in the classroom as the result of a pattern of wrongdoing when it comes to Black students while white students' offenses are often labeled as isolated incidents. While it has been proven that black boys in the U.S. tend to be disciplined more often and more severely, evidence also suggests that black girls experience more racial bias in their education. A research study conducted by
5616-408: Is evidence that a potential consequence of this lack of understanding is a self-fulfilling prophecy : teachers treat students as less capable, then students internalize these expectations and underperform. These students may also feel a cultural conflict between their native language and English. Cultural differences may cause students to feel a rejection of their native culture or language, leading to
5760-470: Is further widened for Black students with disabilities. National surveys on disparities in school discipline have found higher rates of suspension among Black students with disabilities. From 2014 to 2015, the national average of days lost per 100 enrolled for students with disabilities was 119.0 days for Black students and 43.0 days for white students. An existent effort to decrease rates of disciplinary actions for Black students with disabilities have examined
5904-524: Is important that more information is gathered about teachers' implicit biases because they can affect the way they teach students. Students of color are affected by these biases, so more research on racial disparities in education will help determine the role of bias in the educational system. There is a cultural disconnect between white teachers and African-American students that makes it hard for African-American students to learn effectively because they do not understand their teacher's instruction style, which
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6048-472: Is not listed in the mixed motives provision of the 1991 Civil Rights Act. If an employer takes an adverse employment action against an employee for a discriminatory reason and later discovers a legitimate reason that it can prove would have led it to take the same action, the employer is still liable for the discrimination, but the relief that the employee can recover may be limited. McKennon v. Nashville Banner Publishing Co. , 513 U.S. 352 (1995). In general,
6192-477: Is notably different from African-American adults' instruction style. African-American teachers know the instruction style that African-American students are used to, which makes it easier for these students to learn from them. Additionally, African-American children often look to their teachers in school as a guide to help them succeed in life because their parents and other family members may not be able to demonstrate that same support. White teachers may not understand
6336-525: Is one kind of unlawful discrimination in US labor law . In the United States, it means unequal behavior toward someone because of a protected characteristic (e.g. race or sex) under Title VII of the United States Civil Rights Act . This contrasts with disparate impact , where an employer applies a neutral rule that treats everyone equally in form, but has a disadvantageous effect on some people of
6480-494: Is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Singapore, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and some other countries. It requires the student to report to a designated room (typically after the end of the school day, or during lunch or recess period) to complete extra work (such as writing lines or an essay, or the completion of chores). Detention can be supervised by
6624-466: Is potentially true for African-American Vernacular -speaking students in particular (p. 36). Crawford (1992), and Hudley and Mallinson (2012) state that non-white students may struggle in school and in life due to marginalization of their races and cultures in the curriculum. Other scholars have raised concerns about the lack of opportunities for non-white students to see themselves as having academic or professional potential. These authors assert that
6768-455: Is shifting, and alternative approaches are emerging due to notably high dropout rates, disproportionate punishment upon minority students, and other educational inequalities . Discipline is a set of consequences determined by the school district to remedy actions taken by a student that are deemed inappropriate. It is sometimes confused with classroom management, but while discipline is one dimension of classroom management, classroom management
6912-565: Is something that is still seen in the 21st century ( 1 ). Due to the nature of this academic environment, dropout rates for black students in segregated schools increased. This limited students' future employment opportunities and perpetuated a cycle of poverty and inequity. Additionally, fewer African-American students enrolled in school relative to their white counterparts, and fewer public schools were available to them. The majority of Black students did not continue their education past an elementary school level. In Plessy v. Ferguson (1896),
7056-457: Is that Black children are more likely to be placed in special education . Teachers are disproportionately identifying African-American students as having developmental disorders: Black students "are about 16% of the school-age population yet are 26% and 34% of children receiving services under the SED [serious emotional disturbances] and MMR [mild mental retardation] developmental delay categories." On
7200-854: Is that resources allocation and quality of instruction are much worse for African-American, Native American, and Latino students when compared to their white counterparts. An analysis by the Stanford University School of Education found that there is a high concentration of minority students in schools that receive fewer resources like books, laboratories, and computers. In addition, these schools often have larger student-to-teacher ratios and instructors with fewer qualifications and less experience. Unqualified and inexperienced teachers are less likely to adapt to different learning methods and less likely to implement higher-order learning strategies that constitute quality education. Students who are placed in gifted education often receive better instruction; it
7344-481: Is whether the employer's actions were motivated by discriminatory intent. Discriminatory intent can either be shown by direct evidence, or through indirect or circumstantial evidence. Under Title VII , a disparate-treatment plaintiff must establish "that the defendant had a discriminatory intent or motive" for taking a job-related action. This doctrine was read into the act in Griggs v. Duke Power Co. , which interpreted
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#17328525649577488-611: The 14th Amendment and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , students who feel they have been intentionally racially discriminated against can testify against their schools or school districts. Disparate impact laws, including the federal regulations of Title VI and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act , allow federal agencies to testify against schools and school districts for policies they have put in place that ultimately result in racial discrimination, regardless of
7632-775: The Arkansas Department of Education , but schools within Arkansas have some decision-making authority, which allowed them the power to suggest the diversification of their staff, as well as other policies that are being put into place to reduce racialized disciplinary disparities, including but not limited to: Similarly to Arkansas, schools in Virginia are attempting to improve training for teachers and administrators. In California, multiple school districts have completely eliminated suspensions for Kindergarten through twelfth grade in public schools. The New York State Education Department and
7776-531: The District of Columbia have banned corporal punishment from public schools, most recently Colorado in 2023. The other 17 states (mostly in the South ) continue to allow corporal punishment in public schools. Of the 17 which permit the practice, three – Arizona , North Carolina , Wyoming have no public schools that actually use corporal punishment as of 2023. In North Carolina however, all school districts have banned
7920-536: The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment , which guarantees all citizens the same protection under the law. It held that segregation perpetuated feelings of inferiority among African-American children and hindered their ability to learn. The court therefore ordered schools to integrate. The Brown decision served as a catalyst for the civil rights movement. ( Brown V Board of Ed ) In
8064-1289: The Freedmen's Bureau , northern philanthropic organizations, and other white groups to ensure their access to public education. During the Reconstruction era, the enrollment of Black students began to expand because of the increased population of freed blacks. Although Black students' enrollment rate continued increasing, there still evidence today of unequal achievement between white students and students from non-white racial identities, as well as between students from low socioeconomic backgrounds and students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. Under Jim Crow , schools were still segregated, which often resulted in Black schools receiving less public funding . This meant Black students were educated in worse facilities, with fewer resources, and with lower-paid teachers than their white counterparts. Furthermore, under Jim Crow, segregation had many negative effects that are still seen today. For example, because segregated schools had fewer resources, less experienced teachers, and overall less funding, there were lower expectations for student academic achievement. This academic achievement gap
8208-580: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act , but DeVos delayed the implementation of these requirements. In 2014, the United States Department of Justice and the Education Department's Office for Civil Rights issued guidance to reduce racial disparities in suspension and expulsion. In 2019, DeVos defended the Education Department's choice to repeal this guidance. Today, schools across the U.S. suspend, expel, and punish Black students at
8352-548: The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), outside school, parental involvement grows exponentially as the household income grows. It shows that parents making $ 100,000 a year or more had a 75% chance of telling their child a story, whereas a family making $ 20,000 is had only a 60% probability of the same. These types of activities are what leads to brain development and kids with in lower-SES households are statistically receiving less. Low-SES children are also exposed to
8496-550: The National Women's Law Center and the Education Trust observed that "Black girls are five times more likely than white girls to be suspended at least once and four times as likely as white girls to be arrested at school." The racial bias is compounded as girls also experience gender bias within the classroom, a phenomenon coined as educational inequality . Based on data published by The National Bureau of Economic Research on
8640-425: The U.S. Department of Education , African-American students are three times more likely to be suspended and expelled than their white peers. Research overwhelmingly suggests that when given an opportunity to choose among several disciplinary options for a relatively minor offense, teachers and school administrators disproportionately choose more severe punishment for African-American students than for white students for
8784-579: The United States Supreme Court decided that educational facilities were allowed to segregate white students from students of color as long as the educational facilities were considered equal. In practice, separate educational facilities meant fewer resources and access for Black and other minority students. On average, white students received 17–70% more educational expenditures than their Black counterparts. The first federal legal challenge of these unequal segregated educational systems occurred in
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#17328525649578928-523: The Abolish Chronic Truancy (ACT) program that would discipline absenteeism through penal punishments for both students and their parental guardians. Punishments for parental guardians include legal prosecution with a maximum penalty of a fine up to $ 2,500 per child and up to a year sentencing. For students, punishments may be prosecution in juvenile court with potential penalties including fines, probation, community service, and mandated attendance of
9072-492: The Act to prohibit, in some cases, employers' facially neutral practices that, in fact, are "discriminatory in operation." The Griggs Court stated that the "touchstone" for disparate-impact liability is the lack of "business necessity": "If an employment practice which operates to exclude [minorities] cannot be shown to be related to job performance , the practice is prohibited." If an employer met its burden by showing that its practice
9216-566: The Alameda County School District has piloted a diversion program to increase attendance. The program addresses students with high absenteeism rates with consistently absent students by providing access to therapy, health services, and resources such as bus passes. The county reports that the program has been "more than 90% successful at getting students back in class", thereby decreasing absenteeism rates. The disparity in punitive disciplinary actions between Black and white students
9360-745: The Black student's disadvantages compared to increasing in funding, which, according to the report, had little impact on student achievement. These findings would serve as an influential factor in the creation of the practice known as desegregation busing . Race is often a big contributor to educational inequalities, and it can explain the widening achievement and discipline gaps between white students and students of color. Implicit bias and stereotyping perpetuate systemic injustices and lead to unequal opportunities. Race influences teachers' expectations and, in turn, influences achievement results. A 2016 study showed that non-Black teachers had much lower expectations of Black students than Black teachers who evaluated
9504-528: The Board of Regents has included out-of-school suspensions in the Every Student Succeeds Act , attempting to hold schools accountable for the suspension rates of different groups of students, this includes Black students' higher suspension rates compared to that of other racial and ethnic groups. Within the United States of America, urban educational institutions service the largest portion of Black students in primary and secondary education. On
9648-579: The California case Mendez v. Westminster (1947), followed by Brown v. Board of Education (1954). Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark Supreme Court case that declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional, with the court issuing this decision on May 17, 1954. The NAACP brought this case to challenge segregation in Kansas, which prohibited African Americans from attending white schools. The court held that segregation in public schools violated
9792-453: The U.S. were primarily religious. Education in the 17th and 18th centuries aimed to teach the children of white colonists how to read the Bible and abide by Puritan values. For Indigenous children, the formal education was generally a means to forcibly assimilate them into white Puritan society and convert them to Christianity . Through this process of assimilation, which continued even after
9936-519: The United States Department of Education Office of Special Education Programs Technical Assistance Center and have been used by schools across the United States. Racial disparities in suspension and expulsion vary across the United States, Atlanta, Georgia, Chicago, Illinois, Houston, Texas; and St. Paul. Minnesota has schools and school districts that, on average, suspend Black students at least six times more than white students. A study by
10080-595: The United States, integration is the process of ending race-based segregation within public and private schools, and it is generally referred to in the context of the Civil Rights Movement . Integration has historically been employed as a method for reducing the achievement gap that exists between white students and students of color in the United States. Students in integrated schools also learn to be more accepting of others, which has been shown to reduce race-based prejudice. Studies conducted in schools across
10224-466: The United States, African-American students, particularly boys, are disciplined significantly more often and more severely than any other demographic. This disparity is very well documented and contributes substantially to negative life outcomes for affected students. The resulting tendency of minors and young adults from disadvantaged backgrounds to become incarcerated is widely referred to as the " school-to-prison pipeline ". According to data published by
10368-444: The United States, corporal punishment is not used in public schools in 36 states, banned in 33, and permitted in 17, of which only 14 actually have school districts actively administering corporal punishment. Every U.S. state except New Jersey and Iowa permits corporal punishment in private schools, but an increasing number of private schools have abandoned the practice, especially Catholic schools. Thirty-one U.S. states as well as
10512-564: The University of Pennsylvania concluded that Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and West Virginia schools contribute over half of all suspensions and expulsions of Black students in America. In these thirteen states, Black students make up about 24% of the students in public schools, but 48% of suspension cases and 49% of expulsion cases. Today, 19 states allow
10656-416: The aforementioned issues, Hudley and Mallinson (2012), and Fryer (2006) discuss the development of a stigmatizing label of "acting white" that some Black and Hispanic students use. According to these authors, the phenomenon of "acting white" comes from seeing academic success as coming hand in hand with whiteness or, for some non-white students, the abandonment of their original cultures in order to succeed in
10800-444: The behavior that led to the suspension or journal detailing the reason for the student being suspended from school, which they would be required to hand in to a school administrator upon returning to school following their suspension. Sometimes schools will have meetings with the suspended student, the student's parents, a school administrator, and sometimes a social worker in the case of a special education student to discuss and evaluate
10944-794: The civil rights movement. Instead, textbooks often frame slavery and other issues in ways that encourage sympathy with white Americans, including slave-holders. Multiple textbooks include discussions of slave revolts in terms of the damage they caused white people instead of focusing on the need of enslaved Black people to overthrow the system of slavery (pp. 346–347). Other scholars, including Brown (2014), Elson (1964), Huber et al. (2006), Mills (1994), and Stout (2013) have argued that Black people, Native Americans , East Asian and Southeast Asian Americans , and Mexican Americans have been subject to marginalization, silencing, or misrepresentation in U.S. school curriculum. Other scholars have argued that white (and middle-class) cultural norms are employed in
11088-483: The classroom by clearly showing the boundaries and making it clear that the behavior is unacceptable, as opposed to more severe punishments outside the classroom such as detention, suspension, or expulsion, can promote learning and deter future misbehavior. Learning to "own" one's bad behavior is also thought to contribute to positive growth in social emotional learning. School discipline practices are generally informed by theory from psychologists and educators. There are
11232-514: The classroom they are often covert and passive. This means that instead of outwardly discriminating against a student because of their color teachers discreetly give fewer advantages to students of color. Examples of this could include counselors or teachers influencing students of color to take easier classes or to not attend four-year universities, and teachers not learning the correct way to pronounce student names. This can also include white students being given more chances before serious discipline
11376-494: The classroom. Restorative justice also focuses on justice as needs and obligations, expands justice as conversations between the offender, victim and school, and recognizes accountability as understanding the impact of actions and repairing the harm. Traditional styles of discipline do not always work well for students across every cultural community. As an alternative to the normative approaches of corporal punishment, detention, counseling, suspension, and expulsion, restorative justice
11520-621: The colonial period, white settlers compelled Indigenous populations to give up cultural traditions, including their native languages. In the early 20th century, Indigenous children were forcibly taken from their families and enrolled in boarding schools . The purpose of this was to "civilize" and assimilate Indigenous communities into American society. Historically, African Americans in the United States experienced trouble accessing quality education. In colonial times, many white people felt that if Black people, particularly enslaved Black people , were to become educated, they would start to challenge
11664-514: The consequences of failing to meet those standards. Suspension or temporary exclusion is a mandatory leave assigned to a student as a form of punishment that can last anywhere from one day to a few weeks, during which the student is not allowed to attend regular lessons. In some US, UK, Australian, and Canadian schools, there are two types of suspension: In-school (ISS, internal exclusion, or isolation) and out-of-school (OSS, off-campus suspension, or external exclusion). In-school suspension means that
11808-700: The country and an influx of students entering the juvenile justice system . By 2000, 41 states had laws in place requiring cases involving students who committed criminal violations in school, like drug possession, to be handled by law enforcement and juvenile courts, instead of the schools themselves. During this time, Black students accounted for over one-third of all corporal punishment cases and in-school and out-of-school suspensions , nearly one-third of all expulsions and school-related arrests, and over one-quarter of all referrals to law enforcement; rates around three times higher than that of white students. Public schools are prohibited from using disciplinary practices as
11952-597: The country have found that racial integration of schools is effective in reducing the achievement gap. In 1964, following the Civil Rights Act , the United States Congress commissioned sociologist James Coleman to direct and conduct a study on school inequality in the U.S. The report, known colloquially as the Coleman Report, was a landmark study in the field of sociology and education. The report detailed
12096-435: The creation and delivery of school curriculum, to the detriment of students who do not have the same cultural background. Crawford (1992) writes that white American values such as "competition," "confrontation" structure class proceedings when students with different upbringings may be uncomfortable with or confused by these conventions. The same is true, she argues, for activities such as group work and engaging in dialogues with
12240-593: The critical advancements made in societies outside of Europe, including Egypt , Mesopotamia , Persia , India , and China , are very frequently ignored in the narrative that the Ancient Greeks pioneered most math, which Europe then later salvaged after the Dark Ages . In her analysis of American history textbooks, Swartz (1992) highlights a repeated failure to provide meaningful information about Black Americans, namely throughout slavery , Reconstruction , Jim Crow, and
12384-417: The day before detention, and detention should not exceed 45 minutes. Counseling is also provided when students will have to see a school counselor (guidance counselor) for misbehavior. The purpose of counseling is to help the student recognize their mistakes and find positive ways to make changes in the student's life. Counseling can also help the student clarify the school's expectations, as well as understand
12528-424: The detriment of non-white students' learning outcomes and the whole of American society. In the early 20th century, Historian Carter G. Woodson argued that U.S. education indoctrinated students into believing white people were superior, and Black people inferior, by showcasing white accomplishments and effectively denying that Black people had made any contributions to society or had any potential. In his experience,
12672-853: The development in adolescents and young adults. As a result, much research has studied how neighborhoods can explain a person's level of educational attainment. Research has shown that an adolescent's neighborhood can significantly affect his or her life chances. Children from poorer neighborhoods are less likely to climb out of poverty compared to children who grow up in more affluent neighborhoods. In terms of education, students from high-SES neighborhoods have higher levels of school readiness and higher IQ levels. Studies have also shown that there are "links between neighborhood high SES and educational attainment" in regards to older adolescents. Children growing up in high-SES neighborhoods are more likely to graduate from high school and attend college compared to students growing up in low-SES neighborhoods. Living in
12816-489: The disproportionate rate of discipline towards African-American and minority students. In the United States, many of the state and federal laws surrounding school discipline originate from zero-tolerance policies for student misconduct practiced by policy-makers from the 1980s and 1990s. With the increasing use of zero-tolerance policies, by 1997 the federal government was funding the use of police officers in schools, resulting in an increased use of discipline in schools across
12960-525: The disproportionate suffering Black Americans experience after natural disasters (p. 122). In the United States, a family's socioeconomic status (SES) has a significant impact on the child's education. The parents' level of education, income, and career attainment combine to determine the level of difficulty their children will face in school. This milieu creates an inequality of learning between children from high-SES families and children from low-SES families. High-SES families can ensure their children receive
13104-560: The effects of same-race teachers within the classroom. For example, from 2014 to 2015, North Carolina had a wider gap in disparities than the national average in which Black students lost 158.3 days per 100 enrolled and white students lost 64.1 days. North Carolina, like many states, has local school districts with a higher percentage of Black staff and teachers than other districts. A study by researchers Constance A. Lindsey and Cassandra M. D. Hart demonstrates that Black females reduced disciplinary rates for Black male students with disabilities by
13248-522: The employee is not entitled to reinstatement or front pay, and the back pay liability period is limited to the time between the occurrence of the discriminatory act and the date the misconduct justifying the job action is discovered. McKennon, 513 U.S. at 361-62. In class actions or other cases alleging a widespread practice of intentional discrimination, plaintiffs may establish a prima facie case using statistical evidence instead of comparative evidence pertaining to each class member. Plaintiffs often combine
13392-490: The employer's legitimate needs. Under the direct method, a plaintiff tries to show that his membership in the protected class was a motivating factor in the adverse job action. In the majority of cases, the plaintiff lacks direct evidence of discrimination and must prove discriminatory intent indirectly by inference. The Supreme Court analyzes these cases using the McDonnell Douglas burden-shifting formula . The analysis
13536-568: The extreme levels of racial segregation in schools that still persisted in the Southern United States despite the ruling of the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education . Coleman found that Black students benefited greatly from learning in mixed-race schools. Therefore, he argued that busing Black students to white school districts to integrate the schools would be more effective in reducing
13680-504: The fastest-growing student population in the U.S. About 73% of ELL students speak Spanish as their first language, although the most common language varies by state. Sixty percent of ELL students come from low-income families in which parents have very limited educational levels. Family income level and lack of English language skills are often two intertwined barriers that ELL students face. Students who are not proficient in English are put at
13824-483: The government, which typically include a combination of student tuition, donations, fundraising, and endowments. Private school enrollment makes up about 10% of all K–12 enrollment in the U.S. (about 4 million students), while public school enrollment encompasses 56.4 million students. Because private schools are funded outside of government channels, they often exercise more freedom in how they operate their schools. Many private schools choose to teach material outside of
13968-422: The intent behind the people practicing those policies. Violations of these regulations can cause schools and school districts to lose federal funding. Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports (PBIS) programs examine disciplinary issues, attempt to reduce the severity of punishment for students, and provide increased support for students who have emotional and behavioral disorders. PBIS programs are supported by
14112-426: The job market. After analyzing data from 2005 to 2009, they saw that African Americans were less likely to major in a STEM-related field , which has a higher return on investment than the liberal arts . A 2018 study yielded similar results: white students are twice as likely to major in engineering than Black students, and Hispanic students are also underrepresented. Disparate treatment Disparate treatment
14256-410: The lack of meaningful use and discussion of non-white perspectives, practices, and feats may lead minority students to feel disillusioned with school, disengage from learning, and doubt their own capabilities. In a study on internalized racism , Huber et al. (2006) find that curriculum underrepresents minorities and that this may contribute to ingrained senses of racial inferiority (p. 193). Citing
14400-569: The matter following an out-of-school suspension. Studies suggest that school suspension is associated with increased risk of subsequent criminal justice system involvement and lower educational attainment. School suspension can also be associated with psychological distress, and to have a bi-directional link with mental illness. In the United Kingdom , excluded children have been targeted by " county lines " drug traffickers. Expulsion, dismissal, exclusion, withdrawing, or permanent exclusion terminates
14544-549: The national average cost of private school tuition in the 2020–2021 school year was $ 11,004. Since several private schools have religious affiliations, there have also been arguments regarding potential bias and questionable standards in religious private schools. Differences in private and public education can affect children's future achievement. Several studies point out that students who attend private schools are more likely to graduate from high school and attend college afterward. There have been studies indicating that areas with
14688-911: The need for extra support because traditionally white, middle-class students have family support that does not require white teachers to be role models and guides. It is important that teachers understand this discrepancy in family life between African-American children and white children so that they can support students effectively. However, inequality in education can diminish if teachers of different ethnicities and races are taught how to support students of different ethnicities and races. If teachers are taught more about their implicit biases and how to deal with them then, they will be able to teach students more fairly. Strategies that white teachers can implement to support African-American students properly can include having an authoritative and disciplined style, which includes: These strategies are subtle ways that can help white teachers connect to African-American students in
14832-416: The opportunity to take challenging courses, receive additional academic help, graduate on time, attend college, and secure good jobs." There are several differences in how private schools operate compared to public schools . Public schools are funded by federal, state, and local sources with nearly half of their funding coming from local property taxes. Private schools are funded from resources outside of
14976-446: The other hand, ADHD in Black children is more likely to go undiagnosed and, as a result, these students are often punished more severely than white students who have been recognized as having ADHD. One study shows that Black students with undiagnosed ADHD are seen as disruptive and more frequently removed from class, reducing their learning opportunities and increasing the chances they will end up in prison. More evidence of inequality
15120-435: The popular tactic of shopping for school districts : parents plan where they are going to live based on the quality of the school district. They can afford to live in areas where other high-SES families reside, and this congregation of high-SES families produces a well-funded school district. These families are capable of directly investing in their children's education by donating to the school. Having access to such funds gives
15264-690: The practice. Paddling is still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools in Alabama , Arkansas , Georgia , Louisiana , Mississippi , Missouri , Oklahoma , Tennessee and Texas . Private schools in these and most other states may also use it, though many choose not to do so. Official corporal punishment, often by caning , remains commonplace in schools in some Asian, African and Caribbean countries. Most mainstream schools in most other countries retain punishment for misbehavior, but it usually takes non-corporal forms such as detention and suspension. In China, school corporal punishment
15408-539: The racial message contained in schools' teachings was so strong that he claimed, "there would be no lynching if it did not start in the schoolroom." More recent scholarship still points to the overrepresentation of perspectives, histories, and accomplishments associated with European and White American culture, and the simultaneous underrepresentation of the perspectives, histories, and accomplishments of non-White Americans. Swartz (1992) and King (2014) explain that school curriculum has been structured by what they call
15552-435: The report of a student to a law enforcement agency or officer by a school employee can include citations, tickets, court referrals, and in some cases arrests, though not all referrals lead to arrests. These interactions with the law are a precursor for the school-to-prison pipeline , which disproportionately affects black students. Throughout the history of education , the most common means of maintaining discipline in schools
15696-401: The resources available to students and their schools. Educational inequality contributes to a number of broader problems in the United States, including income inequality and increasing prison populations . Educational inequalities in the United States are wide-ranging, and many potential solutions have been proposed to mitigate their impacts on students. The earliest forms of education in
15840-510: The same benefits as students in high-SES neighborhoods and school systems; their chances of attending college are much higher than those who stayed in low-SES neighborhoods. One study done in Chicago placed African-American students in public housing in the suburbs as opposed to in the city. The schools in the suburbs generally received more funding and had mostly white students. Students who attended these schools "were substantially more likely to have
15984-419: The same decision without the discriminatory factor, it may avoid liability for monetary damages, reinstatement or promotion. The court may still grant the plaintiff declaratory relief, injunctive relief, and attorneys' fees and costs. The Seventh Circuit has held that in a mixed motives retaliation case, the plaintiff is not entitled to declaratory relief, injunctive relief, or attorneys fees because retaliation
16128-531: The same offense. Even when controlling factors such as family income, African-American boys are more likely to receive out-of-school suspensions than white boys for the same behavior within the same school. A recent study published by the National Academy of Sciences , using U.S. federal data covering more than 32 million students and around 96,000 schools, showed that "the disciplinary gap between black and white students across five types of disciplinary actions
16272-471: The same student. White teachers were 12% less likely to think the student would graduate from high school and 30% less likely to think they would graduate from college. Previous studies have demonstrated the importance of teachers' expectations: students whose teachers believe they are capable of high achievement tend to do better ( Pygmalion effect ). Another study found that white teachers were more likely to give constructive feedback on essays if they believed
16416-473: The same time, students who grow up speaking with different English conventions suffer stigmatization due to their speech patterns and experience the added difficulty of having to learn a whole new set of language conventions while participating in "normal" schoolwork (p. 36). The authors assert that, by holding minority students to historically White English norms, schools often communicate that these students must make themselves whiter to be seen as acceptable. This
16560-402: The school must provide the student with limited constitutional due process protections as public educational institutions operate as an extension of state governments. Conversely, with private schools, the student can be expelled for any reason – provided that the expulsion was not "arbitrary and capricious." In Virginia, as long as a private school follows the procedures in its student handbook,
16704-400: The schools capacity to have high-caliber resources such as experienced teachers, technology, good nutrition, clubs, sports, and books. If students have access to such resources, they are able to learn more effectively. Children of lower-SES families do not have these resources. The NCES study has an example of inequality related to home internet access by median income and race. It shows that, by
16848-468: The schools lack appropriate funding for quality resources. This results in schools that cannot compete with wealthier schools. However, recent political developments favor legal changes to these funding laws. For example, a court in Pennsylvania held the state's funding processes are failing to uphold the state's constitutional obligation to provide education. Neighborhoods play a significant effect on
16992-572: The short-term and long-term consequences of teachers' stereotypical biases, it was found that teacher biases have a positive effect on boys' achievements in class but have a negative effect on girls' achievements. This can have long-term consequences for the futures of Black girls as it can prevent them from enrolling in the advanced-level classes that are commonly required for STEM majors in college. Disciplinary methods also vary based on students' socioeconomic status. While high-income students are often reported to receive mild to moderate consequences (e.g.
17136-563: The social environment of universities makes African Americans feel more isolated and less connected to the school. They observed that "African American students at White institutions have higher attrition rates, lower grade point averages , lower satisfactory relationships with faculty, lower enrollment into postgraduate programs, and greater dissatisfaction." Additionally, many researchers have studied stereotype threat —the idea that negative perceptions of race can lead to underperformance. One of these experiments done at Stanford University tested
17280-524: The state-mandated curriculum. They are also allowed to have religious affiliations and selection criteria for which students they accept. In contrast, public schools are not allowed to have religious ties and must accept any student geographically zoned in their area. There have been several arguments raised against private school systems. Some argue that they perpetuate elitist forms of education and have high barriers to entry, as tuition to private schools can be up to tens of thousands of dollars. For reference,
17424-485: The statistical evidence with anecdotal or other evidence of discriminatory treatment. The employer can rebut the prima facie case by introducing alternative statistics or by demonstrating that plaintiff's proof is either inaccurate or insignificant. The plaintiff then bears the burden of proving that the employer's information is biased, inaccurate, or otherwise unworthy of credence. A violation of Title VII can be shown in two separate and distinct ways. The alternative to
17568-407: The story but also has a say in their consequence. Consequences defy the traditional methods of punitive punishment and instead give students an opportunity for restoration. Restorative justice focuses on relationship building and the community as a whole over the individual student and their offence, creating a sense that everyone has a part in the community and it is everyone's responsibility to uphold
17712-632: The student comes to school as usual but must report to and stay in a designated room for the entire school day. Out-of-school suspension means that the student is banned from entering the school grounds, or being near their campus while suspended from school. A student who breaches an out-of-school suspension (by attending the school during their suspension) may be arrested for trespassing, and repeated breaches may lead to expulsion and/or possible criminal penalties. Students are also not allowed to attend after-school activities (such as proms, sporting events, etc.) while suspended from school. Some schools even utilize
17856-690: The student who wrote it was white. Essays perceived to be written by Black or Latino students were given more praise and less guidance on how to improve their writing. One reason for this lack of quality feedback could be that teachers do not want to appear racist so they grade Black students more easily; however, this is detrimental and can lead to lower achievement over time. One study examined how implicit bias affects students of color, finding that white teachers who gave lessons to Black students had greater anxiety and delivered less clear lectures. They played recordings of these lectures to non-Blacks students who then performed just as badly, showing that achievement
18000-613: The student's education. This is the last resort, when all other methods of discipline have failed. However, in extreme situations, it may also be used for an exceptionally serious 'one-off' offense, such as setting fires on campus, the activation of false alarms, or assault and battery against faculty and staff members, killing students and teachers, or school administrators, bomb threats, breaking into classrooms and school offices during non school hours, and vandalism of school property. Setting off fireworks and firecrackers on campus can result in expulsion as well. Some education authorities have
18144-699: The systems of power that kept them oppressed. Southern states feared slaves would begin to act out against their slave owners or escape to northern states if they were educated. As a result, several states enacted laws that prohibited slaves from learning to read or write—commonly referred to as anti-literacy statutes . Although punishment varied from state to state, several southern states (Virginia, South Carolina, Mississippi, and Georgia) would criminally prosecute any slave who attempted to learn to read or write. In some cases, white people could also be punished for attempting to educate slaves. When some religious groups attempted to establish schools for African Americans, this
18288-419: The teacher setting the detention or through a centralised detention system. Detention may require a student to report at a certain time on a non-school day, e.g. "Saturday detention" at some US, UK, and Irish schools (especially for serious offences not quite serious enough for suspension). In UK schools, after-school detention can be held the same day as it is issued without parental consent, and some schools make
18432-432: The teacher, rather than perhaps receiving information silently. Crawford also asserts that schools often do not look to conform to their students' specific life circumstances, thereby obstructing these students' educational paths (p. 21). Hudley and Mallinson (2012) discuss the use of " standardized English " in schools and how that impacts students, who speak a wide range of types of English. "Standardized English" refers to
18576-471: The teachers is still common. Teachers may ask the students to do some missed work after school. In Australia, the school should consider circumstances when giving detentions. For example, in Victoria, it is recommended that no more than half the time for recess is used for detention, that detentions be held at a reasonable time and place, and when students are kept after school, parents should be informed at least
18720-828: The third most often suspended group. Black students with disabilities in California lose about 44 more days of school instruction due to disciplinary consequences than their white peers with disabilities. Schools across the country are making efforts to reform their disciplinary systems and practices to reduce racial disparities. A study in North Carolina found that having Black teachers is associated with lowered amounts of exclusionary discipline for Black students, across all age, gender, and income ranges. To reduce its racial disciplinary disparity, Arkansas' state regulations are beginning to request that school districts make an effort to racially diversify their staff. School disciplinary policies in Arkansas are technically decided by state laws and
18864-713: The use of corporal punishment in schools, including Arkansas, a state that ranks 13th in the country for highest disciplinary disparity between Black and white students. In the state of New York, black students are suspended at a rate over four times higher than white students; in New York City, this figure increases, with Black students being suspended at a rate over five times higher than white students. Schools in New York suspend nearly one in five Black male high-schoolers. In California, Black males are suspended more frequently than any other racial or gender group, and Black females are
19008-402: The values of the particular community. This is a method that not only increases an understanding of perceived community values, but is also a method thought to work well in cultures and communities where there is a high value on the community, rather than just on the individual. In 2012, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights released a report entitled "School Discipline and Disparate Impact," which
19152-409: The varying racial disparities in discipline across U.S. counties and school districts is the different disciplinary approaches to solving truancy , eg. "any intentional, unjustified, unauthorized, or illegal absence from compulsory education". The Los Angeles County District enacted punitive measures to decrease the rate of absenteeism occurring within the district's educational institutions. It piloted
19296-590: The version of English used in American academia and professional settings, which is also the type of English spoken by middle-class white Americans (pp. 11–12). The authors cite a consensus among linguists that there is no objective standard for English, and that, in reality, standardized English has been judged to be "standard" because it is what is spoken by people who wield power in society (p. 12). They emphasize that children who grow up speaking standardized English enjoy linguistic privilege when both when learning how to read and write, and when interacting with teachers. At
19440-680: The white students) but usually face negative schooling experiences that discourage them. These disparities carry over into higher education and explain much of why many Black students choose not to pursue a degree. Furthermore, in a 2006–2007 study by the Institute of Education Sciences , statistics show that Black, Hispanic, poor, and near-poor students made up 10% of the population of total students who attended public schools that did not meet Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) standards. Higher education Higher education encompasses undergraduate and postgraduate schooling and usually results in obtaining
19584-495: Was corporal punishment . While a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a substitute parent , with many forms of parental discipline or rewards open to them. This often meant that students were commonly chastised with the birch , cane , paddle , strap or yardstick if they did something wrong. Around 69 countries still use school corporal punishment. Corporal punishment in schools has now disappeared from most Western countries, including all European countries. In
19728-463: Was completely banned for compulsory schools in China. This has proved controversial in cases where the head teacher's decision has been overturned (and his or her authority thereby undermined), and there are proposals to abolish the right of appeal. In the United States, when it comes to student discipline, there is a marked difference in procedure between public and private institutions. With public schools,
19872-709: Was completely banned under the Article 29 of the Compulsory Education Act of the People's Republic of China, but in practice, beating by schoolteachers is still common, especially in rural areas. In Australia, school corporal punishment has been banned in public schools in all states, but as of 2019, it is still permitted in private schools in Queensland and the Northern Territory. Detention, sometimes referred to as DT,
20016-418: Was discovered that Black children were 54% less likely to be placed in one of these programs and "were three times more likely to be referred for the programs if their teacher was Black rather than white." According to multiple studies, African-American students are disadvantaged from the very beginning of elementary school. One survey reported that they have very high aspirations (much higher when compared to
20160-409: Was established to give students a voice in their consequences, as well as an opportunity to make a positive contribution to their community. Restorative justice typically involves peer-mediation or adult-supervised conversations surrounding a perceived offence. Each student has the ability to contribute to the conversation, the person who has misbehaved has the opportunity not only to give their side of
20304-454: Was job-related, the plaintiff was required to show a legitimate alternative that would have resulted in less discrimination. Twenty years after Griggs, the Civil Rights Act of 1991 was enacted. The Act included a provision codifying the prohibition on disparate-impact discrimination. Under the disparate-impact statute, a plaintiff establishes a prima facie violation by showing that an employer uses "a particular employment practice that causes
20448-496: Was not a result of the students' ability but rather the teachers' implicit bias. Non-Asian minority students often do not have equal access to high-quality teachers, which can be an indication for how well a student will perform. However, there has been conflicting research on how large the effect truly is. Some claim having a high-quality teacher is the biggest predictor of academic success, while another study states that inequalities are largely caused by other factors. Moreover,
20592-672: Was often met with severe opposition from white community members. The Civil War and the emancipation of slaves led to a push for more education opportunities for African Americans. Most Black people did not have access to education until the Reconstruction era following the Civil War, when public schools started to become more common. Newly freed African Americans prioritized education, and many considered education an effective way to empower their communities. In southern states, Black residents engaged in collective action and collaborated with
20736-657: Was somewhat critical of the Department of Education's approach to school discipline. Educational inequality in the United States Unequal access to education in the United States results in unequal outcomes for students. Disparities in academic access among students in the United States are the result of multiple factors including government policies, school choice , family wealth, parenting style , implicit bias towards students' race or ethnicity , and
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