The Save Aramoana Campaign was formed in 1974 to oppose a proposed aluminium smelter at Aramoana in New Zealand .
134-475: In the late 1970s Aramoana was proposed as the site of a major aluminium smelter by a consortium of New Zealand–based Fletcher-Challenge, Australia's CSR Limited and Swiss firm Alusuisse . An aluminium smelter was already operating at Tiwai Point when the smelter at Aramoana was proposed. From its inception, the Otago Harbour Board had vested in it for harbour purposes, land on the northern side of
268-642: A capacity factor of over 50%. Electricity was first generated by wind in New Zealand in 1993, by a 225 kW demonstration turbine in the Wellington suburb of Brooklyn. The first commercial wind farm was established in 1996 – the Hau Nui Wind Farm , 22 km (14 mi) southeast of Martinborough had seven turbines and generated 3.85 MW. The Tararua Wind Farm was first commissioned in 1999 with 32 MW of generating capacity, gradually expanding over
402-491: A precipitate of aluminium hydroxide , Al(OH) 3 , forms. This is useful for clarification of water, as the precipitate nucleates on suspended particles in the water, hence removing them. Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as aluminate , [Al(H 2 O) 2 (OH) 4 ] , is formed. Aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali, as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides. This behavior of Al(OH) 3
536-515: A "less classical sound". This name persisted: although the -um spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used -ium from the start. Most scientists throughout the world used -ium in the 19th century; and it was entrenched in several other European languages, such as French , German , and Dutch . In 1828, an American lexicographer, Noah Webster , entered only
670-547: A 90% share of renewable electricity by 2025. Following this, the government raised its ambition by setting a goal of achieving 100% renewable electricity by 2030. The Ministry of Business, Innovation, and Employment in New Zealand monitors several key entities in the electricity sector. This includes the independent regulators, the Electricity Authority and the Commerce Commission , which are responsible for
804-492: A Swedish chemist, Jöns Jacob Berzelius , in which the name aluminium is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum. (Another article in the same journal issue also refers to the metal whose oxide is the basis of sapphire , i.e. the same metal, as to aluminium .) A January 1811 summary of one of Davy's lectures at the Royal Society mentioned the name aluminium as a possibility. The next year, Davy published
938-573: A ban on construction of new fossil fuelled generation plants and a ban on future sales of incandescent light bulbs . From 1 January 2010, the energy sector was required to report greenhouse gas emissions under the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme (NZETS). From 1 July 2010, the energy sector had formal compliance obligations to buy and surrender one emission unit for every two tonnes of reported emissions. As of December 2011, there were 78 energy firms compulsorily registered in
1072-546: A chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling aluminum . Both spellings have coexisted since. Their usage is currently regional: aluminum dominates in the United States and Canada; aluminium is prevalent in the rest of the English-speaking world. In 1812, British scientist Thomas Young wrote an anonymous review of Davy's book, in which he proposed the name aluminium instead of aluminum , which he thought had
1206-419: A density lower than that of other common metals , about one-third that of steel . It has a great affinity towards oxygen , forming a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles silver , both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, nonmagnetic , and ductile . It has one stable isotope, Al, which is highly abundant, making aluminium
1340-638: A further capacity of 2,500 MW. New Zealand has abundant wind resources. The country is in the path of the Roaring Forties , strong and constant westerly winds, and the funneling effect of Cook Strait and the Manawatū Gorge increase the resource's potential. These effects make the Lower North Island the main region for wind generation. About 70% of the nation's current installed capacity lies within this region, with some turbines in this area having
1474-465: A more covalent character. The strong affinity of aluminium for oxygen leads to the common occurrence of its oxides in nature. Aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the crust , where it is the third-most abundant element , after oxygen and silicon , rather than in the mantle , and virtually never as the free metal . It is obtained industrially by mining bauxite , a sedimentary rock rich in aluminium minerals. The discovery of aluminium
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#17328549284971608-539: A more congenial site in Zaire, and Aramoana saw the village made freehold and the saltmarsh gazetted as a reserve. The smelter plan called for the destruction of the villages of Aramoana and Te Ngaru, and also threatened a local wildlife reserve. In response residents of the area announced their secession from New Zealand on 23 December 1980, established a "border post" and "travelling embassy", printed passports , citizenship certificates and postage stamps , and set about using
1742-557: A period as Electricorp. The Fourth National Government went further with the Energy Companies Act 1992, requiring EPBs and MEDs to become commercial companies in charge of distribution and retailing. In 1994, ECNZ's transmission business was split off as Transpower . In 1996, ECNZ was split again, with a new separate generation business, Contact Energy being formed. The Fourth National Government privatised Contact Energy in 1999. The Electricity Industry Reform Act 1998 required
1876-405: A planner/economist with the campaign took to court for a declaratory judgment as to their legality. This had the effect of placing the whole project sub judice , and therefore unable to proceed. It cost $ 50.00 to lodge that action with the court, and when it became clear that the project would not be able to quietly proceed under the existing rules, the entire campaign for and against the smelter
2010-533: A precedent that was to dominate New Zealand's electricity generation , with hydropower becoming and remaining the dominant source. From 1912 to 1918, the Public Works Department issued licenses for many local power stations. By 1920, there were 55 public supplies, with 45 megawatts of generating capacity between them. Early public electricity supplies used various voltage and current standards. The 230/400- volt 50- hertz three-phase system
2144-441: A probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low electrical resistivity . Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray depending on its surface roughness . Aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for near ultraviolet and far infrared light. It is also one of the most reflective for light in the visible spectrum, nearly on par with silver in this respect, and
2278-683: A process termed passivation . Because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints. Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation. This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as nitric acid , concentrated sulfuric acid , and some organic acids. In hot concentrated hydrochloric acid , aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen, and in aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at room temperature to form aluminates —protective passivation under these conditions
2412-525: A refractory material, and in ceramics , as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals. The two main oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore . There are three main trihydroxides: bayerite , gibbsite , and nordstrandite , which differ in their crystalline structure ( polymorphs ). Many other intermediate and related structures are also known. Most are produced from ores by
2546-592: A scheduling, pricing and dispatch (SPD) system to rank offers, submitted through WITS, in order of price, and selects the lowest-cost combination of offers (bids) to satisfy demand. The market pricing principle is known as bid-based security-constrained economic dispatch with nodal prices . The highest-priced bid offered by a generator required to meet demand for a given half-hour sets the spot price for that trading period. Electricity spot prices can vary significantly across trading periods, reflecting factors such as changing demand (e.g. lower prices in summer when demand
2680-474: A stable noble gas configuration. Accordingly, the combined first three ionization energies of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone. Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well-characterized members of its group, boron , gallium , indium , and thallium ; it is also expected for nihonium . Aluminium can surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions (see below ). The electronegativity of aluminium
2814-463: A substantial supply of energy not dependent on international fossil fuel prices, New Zealand became less frugal with its energy use. While in 1978 its energy consumption per unit of economic output hovered around the average of all OECD countries, during the 1980s New Zealand dropped far behind, increasing its energy use per economic unit by over 25%, while other nations slowly reduced their energy usage levels. Based on this economic comparison, in 1991
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#17328549284972948-803: A twenty stamp battery at the Phoenix mine. The plant used water from the nearby Skippers Creek , a tributary of the Shotover River . Reefton on the West Coast became the first electrified town in 1888 after the Reefton Power Station was commissioned, while the first sizeable power station—the Horahora Power Station —was built for the Waihi gold mines at Horahora on the Waikato River . This set
3082-815: A variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful. Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful, such as spinel (MgAl 2 O 4 ), Na-β-alumina (NaAl 11 O 17 ), and tricalcium aluminate (Ca 3 Al 2 O 6 , an important mineral phase in Portland cement ). The only stable chalcogenides under normal conditions are aluminium sulfide (Al 2 S 3 ), selenide (Al 2 Se 3 ), and telluride (Al 2 Te 3 ). All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F) and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and
3216-567: A way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina, now known as the Bayer process , in 1889. Modern production of aluminium is based on the Bayer and Hall–Héroult processes. As large-scale production caused aluminium prices to drop, the metal became widely used in jewelry, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil , and other everyday items in the 1890s and early 20th century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided
3350-728: Is Al : while it was present along with stable Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well, its half-life is only 717,000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet. However, minute traces of Al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons. The ratio of Al to Be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 10 to 10 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion. Most meteorite scientists believe that
3484-434: Is Al. Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0.005% relative to Al but its half-life of 728,000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive; Al is therefore extinct . Unlike for Al, hydrogen burning is the primary source of Al, with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of Mg catches a free proton. However, the trace quantities of Al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in
3618-407: Is paramagnetic and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields. The high electrical conductivity, however, means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of eddy currents . Aluminium combines characteristics of pre- and post-transition metals. Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding, like its heavier group 13 congeners, it has
3752-483: Is 1.61 (Pauling scale). A free aluminium atom has a radius of 143 pm . With the three outermost electrons removed, the radius shrinks to 39 pm for a 4-coordinated atom or 53.5 pm for a 6-coordinated atom. At standard temperature and pressure , aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a face-centered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms' outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions)
3886-535: Is New Zealand's largest power station – with 1000 MW of coal- and gas-fired generators and 435 MW of gas-only generators, it supplies around 17% of the country's electricity. There is a gas-fired power station in Taranaki at Stratford (585 MW). Whirinaki is a 155 MW diesel -fired station north of Napier , providing backup generation for periods when generation is not otherwise available, such as when plants break down, or during dry seasons where there
4020-548: Is a metal. This crystal system is shared by many other metals, such as lead and copper ; the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals. The system, however, is not shared by the other members of its group: boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization, thallium has a hexagonal close-packed structure, and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close-packed like those of aluminium and thallium. The few electrons that are available for metallic bonding in aluminium are
4154-515: Is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars , the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl , cryolite , garnet , spinel , and turquoise . Impurities in Al 2 O 3 , such as chromium and iron , yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire , respectively. Native aluminium metal
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4288-405: Is also easily machined and cast . Aluminium is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor , having around 60% the conductivity of copper , both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity , with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas ). It
4422-492: Is also expected to operate at maximum capacity for around 4,000 hours a year, much more than for example the approximately 2,000 hours (Germany) to 3,000 hours (Scotland, Wales, Western Ireland) found in European countries. In 2020, fossil fuels generated 8,154 GW⋅h in 2020 (18.9% of all electricity); 5,938 GW⋅h by gas; 2,159 GW⋅h by coal; and 57 GW⋅h from other sources. Total combined installed capacity in 2020
4556-546: Is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes. Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea . It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH) 4 . Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of
4690-705: Is generated within the Taupō Volcanic Zone – an area in the North Island stretching from Mount Ruapehu in the south to White Island in the north. As at December 2020, the installed capacity of geothermal power was 991 MW, and in 2020, geothermal stations generated 7,610 GW⋅h – 18% of the country's electricity generation that year. Most of New Zealand's geothermal power is generated north of Lake Taupō . Eight stations generate electricity here, including Wairakei Power Station , New Zealand's oldest (1958) and largest (176 MW) geothermal power station, and
4824-536: Is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating, forming compounds such as aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium sulfide (Al 2 S 3 ), and the aluminium halides (AlX 3 ). It also forms a wide range of intermetallic compounds involving metals from every group on the periodic table. The vast majority of compounds, including all aluminium-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in
4958-492: Is in fact more basic than that of gallium. Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group: AlX 3 compounds are valence isoelectronic to BX 3 compounds (they have the same valence electronic structure), and both behave as Lewis acids and readily form adducts . Additionally, one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is regular icosahedral structures, and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral quasicrystal alloys, including
5092-409: Is known to metabolize aluminium salts , but this aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of interest, and studies are ongoing. Of aluminium isotopes, only Al is stable. This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number. It is the only primordial aluminium isotope, i.e.
5226-583: Is limited to 800 MW. No major new hydroelectric projects have been committed as of December 2011, but there are proposals for further developments on the Waitaki and Clutha Rivers, and on the West Coast of the South Island. New Zealand lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire , so has favourable geology for geothermal power . Geothermal fields have been located across New Zealand, but at present, most geothermal power
5360-460: Is limited water for hydroelectricity generation. As of 2021 none of the power generators appear to be committed to the construction of any new fossil-fuelled power stations . There is only one proposed thermal station with resource consent: Todd Energy 's 380 MW Waikato Power Plant. As at the end of June 2024, New Zealand had 62,707 grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) installations producing 447 MW, of which 158 MW were installed in
5494-500: Is negligible. Aqua regia also dissolves aluminium. Aluminium is corroded by dissolved chlorides , such as common sodium chloride , which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium. The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with mercury due to amalgamation or with salts of some electropositive metals. As such, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion-resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper , and aluminium's corrosion resistance
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5628-515: Is not as important. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH 3 ) n , in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH 3 ) 2 . Aluminium's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 3.15 ppm (parts per million). It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen. The only stable isotope of aluminium, Al,
5762-692: Is operated by Genesis Energy and has an installed capacity of 360 MW. The Waikato River Scheme, operated by Mercury Energy , consists of nine powerhouses on the river between Lake Taupō and Hamilton , generating 3650 GW⋅h annually. Other smaller hydroelectricity facilities and schemes are scattered around both islands of mainland New Zealand. Hydroelectric schemes have largely shaped hinterland New Zealand. Towns including Mangakino , Tūrangi , Twizel and Otematata were originally founded for workers constructing hydroelectric schemes, and their families. The hydroelectric reservoirs of Lake Ruataniwha and Lake Karapiro are world-class rowing venues, with
5896-416: Is quite soft and lacking in strength. In most applications various aluminium alloys are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa , while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium is ductile , with a percent elongation of 50-70%, and malleable allowing it to be easily drawn and extruded . It
6030-488: Is subdued) and supply (e.g. higher prices when hydro lakes and inflows are below average). Spot prices can also vary significantly across locations, reflecting electrical losses and constraints on the transmission system (e.g. higher prices in locations further from generating stations). In 2020, New Zealand generated 42,858 gigawatt-hours (GW⋅h) of electricity with hydroelectricity making up 56%. The installed generating capacity of New Zealand (all sources) as of December 2020
6164-422: Is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted octahedral arrangement, with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra. Such {AlF 6 } units also exist in complex fluorides such as cryolite , Na 3 AlF 6 . AlF 3 melts at 1,290 °C (2,354 °F) and is made by reaction of aluminium oxide with hydrogen fluoride gas at 700 °C (1,300 °F). With heavier halides,
6298-547: Is termed amphoterism and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons. One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride: for example, aluminium sulfide yields hydrogen sulfide . However, some salts like aluminium carbonate exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such; and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids, such as
6432-416: Is that of the preceding noble gas , whereas those of its heavier congeners gallium , indium , thallium , and nihonium also include a filled d-subshell and in some cases a filled f-subshell. Hence, the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely, unlike those of aluminium's heavier congeners. As such, aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group, and its hydroxide
6566-433: Is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovas : this fusion creates Mg, which upon capturing free protons and neutrons, becomes aluminium. Some smaller quantities of Al are created in hydrogen burning shells of evolved stars, where Mg can capture free protons. Essentially all aluminium now in existence
6700-662: The -ium spelling as primary, and they list both where it is appropriate. The production of aluminium starts with the extraction of bauxite rock from the ground. The bauxite is processed and transformed using the Bayer process into alumina , which is then processed using the Hall–Héroult process , resulting in the final aluminium. Electricity sector in New Zealand The electricity sector in New Zealand uses mainly renewable energy , such as hydropower , geothermal power and increasingly wind energy . As of 2021,
6834-527: The Aramoana series of paintings in response to the smelter issue. The public campaign also ensured that Government could not lightly face the serious political risk of bringing down a special Empowering Act to force the smelter through, as it had done with the Clyde High Dam. The tide had turned against Think Big, and the smelter was left to sink without trace. Pechiney had left, Alusuisse went off to look for
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#17328549284976968-452: The First and Second World Wars, aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation . In 1954, aluminium became the most produced non-ferrous metal , surpassing copper . In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. Despite its prevalence in the environment, no living organism
7102-455: The Friedel–Crafts reactions . Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction, such as in the manufacture of anthraquinones and styrene ; it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides (a transhalogenation reaction ). Aluminium forms one stable oxide with
7236-466: The London Metal Exchange , the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world, in 1978. The output continued to grow: the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50,000,000 metric tons in 2013. The real price for aluminium declined from $ 14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $ 2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars). Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and
7370-558: The Soviet Union , but Greens co-leader Russel Norman said it would boost the economy and create jobs. By the following day, shares in privately owned power company Contact Energy had fallen by more than 10%. New Zealand's energy policy sets targets to achieve 90% renewable electricity generation by 2025, with an aspiration to reach 100% by 2030. This is further supported by the Emissions Reduction Plan, which aims for 50% of
7504-764: The Tory Channel , and consent has been granted for up to 200 tidal turbines at the Kaipara Tidal Power Station . Other potential locations include the Manukau and Hokianga Harbours , and Te Aumiti / French Pass . The harbours produce currents up to 6 knots with tidal flows up to 100,000 cubic metres a second. These tidal volumes are 12 times greater than the flows in the largest New Zealand rivers. Although New Zealand has nuclear-free legislation , it covers only nuclear-propelled ships, nuclear explosive devices and radioactive waste. The legislation does not prohibit
7638-467: The aluminum spelling in his American Dictionary of the English Language . In the 1830s, the -um spelling gained usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science. In 1892, Hall used the -um spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the -ium spelling in all
7772-423: The chemical formula Al 2 O 3 , commonly called alumina . It can be found in nature in the mineral corundum , α-alumina; there is also a γ-alumina phase. Its crystalline form, corundum, is very hard ( Mohs hardness 9), has a high melting point of 2,045 °C (3,713 °F), has very low volatility, is chemically inert, and a good electrical insulator, it is often used in abrasives (such as toothpaste), as
7906-542: The interstellar gas ; if the original Al were still present, gamma ray maps of the Milky Way would be brighter. Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass (seventh in abundance by mass). Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth's crust than in the universe at large. This is because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the Earth's crust , while less reactive metals sink to
8040-431: The twelfth-most common element in the universe. The radioactivity of Al leads to it being used in radiometric dating . Chemically, aluminium is a post-transition metal in the boron group ; as is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 oxidation state . The aluminium cation Al is small and highly charged ; as such, it has more polarizing power , and bonds formed by aluminium have
8174-465: The 5th century BCE. The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing mordant and for city defense. After the Crusades , alum, an indispensable good in the European fabric industry, was a subject of international commerce; it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid-15th century. The nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested alum
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#17328549284978308-472: The Al–Zn–Mg class. Aluminium has a high chemical affinity to oxygen, which renders it suitable for use as a reducing agent in the thermite reaction. A fine powder of aluminium reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen ; under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5 nm at room temperature) that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid,
8442-612: The Clutha River scheme operated by Contact Energy: Clyde Dam (464 MW, commissioned 1992) and Roxburgh Dam (320 MW, commissioned 1962). The North Island has two major schemes: Tongariro and Waikato. The Tongariro Power Scheme consists of water taken from the catchments of the Whangaehu, Rangitikei, Whanganui and Tongariro Rivers passing through two powerhouses (Tokaanu and Rangipo) before being deposited in Lake Taupō . The scheme
8576-452: The Ministry of Energy assumed responsibility for electricity generation, transmission, policy advice and regulation. Distribution and retailing was the responsibility of local electric power boards (EPBs) or municipal electricity departments (MEDs). New Zealand's electrical energy generation, previously state-owned as in most countries, was corporatised, deregulated and partly sold off over
8710-774: The NZETS and five voluntary participants. Energy sector firms in the NZETS do not receive a free allocation of emissions units and they are expected to pass on to their customers the costs of buying emission units. In April 2013, the Labour Party and the Green Party said if they were to win the 2014 general election, they would introduce a single buyer of electricity akin to Pharmac (the single buyer of pharmaceutical drugs in New Zealand), in order to cut retail costs. The Government responded by calling it "economic vandalism", comparing it to
8844-632: The OHB land at Aramoana. It was not well founded, and was withdrawn in the face of modest opposition. That opposition remained alert to any unusual activity on the OHB land, and when surveyors were seen on the flats over the summer of 1979-80 conservation interests began to organize what became the Save Aramoana Campaign. At the time the site was included in the Waikouaiti District Scheme, under zoning provisions of dubious legality and which
8978-541: The Otago Harbour entrance. This included a quarry for rock to build the mole that protected the entrance; the village, originally housing workers on the mole, and later leased out for holiday homes; a large area of salt marsh ; and adjacent dry-land leased out for rough grazing. After the Comalco Aluminium Smelter was opened at Bluff 's Tiwai Point in 1971, Otago interests sought a similar project in 1974 on
9112-418: The United States dollar, and alumina prices. The BRIC countries' combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century. China is accumulating an especially large share of the world's production thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli; it also increased its consumption share from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010. In
9246-510: The United States, Western Europe, and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging. In 2021, prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to near-record levels as energy shortages in China drive up costs for electricity. The names aluminium and aluminum are derived from the word alumine , an obsolete term for alumina , the primary naturally occurring oxide of aluminium . Alumine
9380-578: The aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four-coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five-coordination. Four pnictides – aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium phosphide (AlP), aluminium arsenide (AlAs), and aluminium antimonide (AlSb) – are known. They are all III-V semiconductors isoelectronic to silicon and germanium , all of which but AlN have the zinc blende structure. All four can be made by high-temperature (and possibly high-pressure) direct reaction of their component elements. Aluminium alloys well with most other metals (with
9514-548: The association doesn't list these members or provide any details of projects. From 2008 to 2011, the government Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority allocated $ 2 million each year from a Marine Energy Deployment Fund, set up to encourage the utilisation of this resource. The greater Cook Strait and Kaipara Harbour seem to offer the most promising sites for using underwater turbines. Two resource consents have been granted for pilot projects in Cook Strait itself and in
9648-572: The building and operation of a nuclear power station. The only significant proposal for a nuclear power station in New Zealand was the Oyster Point Power Station, on the Kaipara Harbour near Kaukapakapa north of Auckland. Between 1968 and 1972, there were plans to develop four 250 MW reactors at the site. By 1972, the plans were dropped as the discovery of the Maui gas field meant there
9782-524: The campaign's planner at the council level and on to the Planning Tribunal as Appeal no. 733/82, upheld by that court in decision C51/83 J.Todd and the Careys Bay Assn. v Silver Peaks County Council. The Court directed that " ... all reference to industrial development at Aramoana is to be deleted ... ". While the planning and legal battles were being fought the broader field saw the campaign kept on
9916-436: The characteristic physical properties of a post-transition metal, with longer-than-expected interatomic distances. Furthermore, as Al is a small and highly charged cation, it is strongly polarizing and bonding in aluminium compounds tends towards covalency ; this behavior is similar to that of beryllium (Be ), and the two display an example of a diagonal relationship . The underlying core under aluminium's valence shell
10050-652: The consortium in October, 1981. The remaining partners failed to secure additional investment capital, and eventually abandoned the project, paving the way for the peaceful reintegration of the Independent State of Aramoana back into New Zealand. The proposal is still remembered as a divisive issue. Aluminium Aluminium (or aluminum in North American English ) is a chemical element ; it has symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has
10184-419: The coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral four-coordinate aluminium centers. Aluminium trichloride (AlCl 3 ) has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of 192.4 °C (378 °F) but transforms on melting to Al 2 Cl 6 dimers. At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl 3 monomers similar to
10318-428: The core. In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element (8.23% by mass ) and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). A large number of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium. In contrast, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminium by mass. Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg. Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium
10452-462: The country generated 81.2% of its electricity from renewable sources. The strategy of electrification is being pursued to enhance the penetration of renewable energy sources and to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across all sectors of the economy. In 2021, electricity consumption reached 40 terawatt-hours (TW⋅h), representing a 0.2% increase compared to the consumption levels in 2010. The 2011–2021 Energy Strategy of New Zealand aims for
10586-613: The country was the second-least energy-efficient of 41 OECD countries. All of the government's energy assets originally came under the Public Works Department . From 1946, the management of generation and transmission came under a new department, the State Hydro-Electric Department (SHD), renamed in 1958 as the New Zealand Electricity Department (NZED). In 1978, the Electricity Division of
10720-562: The country's total final energy consumption (TFEC) to be sourced from renewables by 2035, encouraging widespread electrification across various sectors. Formed in April 2018, New Zealand's Interim Climate Change Committee highlighted the importance of electrifying transport and industrial heating in its April 2019 "Accelerated Electrification" report. In response, the government launched the NZD 70 million Green Investment Finance (GIDI) Fund to facilitate
10854-644: The eastern Bay of Plenty, and a small amount is generated near Kaikohe in Northland . Much of New Zealand's geothermal power potential still lies untapped, with the New Zealand Geothermal Association estimating an installation capacity (using only existing technology) of around 3,600 MW. Wind generated 5% of electricity in 2020. This was down from 7% in 2016 and 9% in 2015. As at end 2020, wind power accounts for 690 MW of installed capacity. Consents have been granted for wind farms with
10988-473: The end of 2020. There are three major hydroelectric schemes in the South Island: Waitaki , Clutha and Manapouri . The Waitaki scheme has three distinct parts – the original Waitaki and Tekapo A power stations (1936 and 1951 respectively), the 1960s Lower Waitaki development consisting of Benmore and Aviemore , and the 1970–80s Upper Waitaki development of Tekapo B and Ōhau A, B, and C. In total,
11122-497: The energy released by the decay of Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago. The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with mass numbers ranging from 21 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three metastable states are known, all with half-lives under a minute. An aluminium atom has 13 electrons, arranged in an electron configuration of [ Ne ] 3s 3p , with three electrons beyond
11256-478: The exception of most alkali metals and group 13 metals) and over 150 intermetallics with other metals are known. Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion, followed by gradual cooling and annealing . Bonding in them is predominantly metallic and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing. There are few compounds with lower oxidation states. A few aluminium(I) compounds exist: AlF, AlCl, AlBr, and AlI exist in
11390-520: The fact that its nuclei are much lighter, while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference. The only lighter metals are the metals of groups 1 and 2 , which apart from beryllium and magnesium are too reactive for structural use (and beryllium is very toxic). Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel, but the low density makes up for this in the aerospace industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial. Pure aluminium
11524-730: The gas phase after explosion and in stellar absorption spectra. More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R 4 Al 2 which contain an Al–Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand . A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR 3 and AlR 1.5 Cl 1.5 exist. The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive, volatile, and colorless liquids or low-melting solids. They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water, thus necessitating precautions when handling them. They often form dimers, unlike their boron analogues, but this tendency diminishes for branched-chain alkyls (e.g. Pr , Bu , Me 3 CCH 2 ); for example, triisobutylaluminium exists as an equilibrium mixture of
11658-453: The gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium, and at cryogenic temperatures. A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine , Al 4 I 4 (NEt 3 ) 4 . Al 2 O and Al 2 S also exist but are very unstable. Very simple aluminium(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide , AlO, has been detected in
11792-646: The halides, nitrate , and sulfate . For similar reasons, anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their "hydrates": hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl 3 ·6H 2 O but [Al(H 2 O) 6 ]Cl 3 , and the Al–O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al–Cl bonds instead: All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF 3 ) features six-coordinate aluminium, which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high heat of formation . Each aluminium atom
11926-553: The last two decades of the twentieth century, following a model typical in the Western world . However, much of the generation and retail sectors, as well as the entire transmission sector, remains under government ownership as state-owned enterprises . The Fourth Labour Government corporatised the Electricity Division as a State Owned Enterprise in 1987, as the Electricity Corporation of New Zealand (ECNZ), which traded for
12060-680: The late 1960s and early 1970s. The discovery of natural gas off the Taranaki coast, and the oil crises of the 1970s, saw oil-fired stations converted to gas or mothballed, while gas-fired stations proliferated, especially in Taranaki and Auckland, well into the 2000s. Only in recent years has coal made a comeback, as Taranaki gas has slowly depleted. Today, there are three major fossil-fuelled stations in New Zealand. Smaller gas- and coal-fired industrial generators are found across New Zealand and especially in Auckland, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, and Taranaki. Genesis Energy's Huntly Power Station in northern Waikato
12194-611: The latter having hosted the 1978 and the 2010 World Rowing Championships . Other schemes have shaped political New Zealand. In the 1970s, the original plans to raise Lake Manapouri for the Manapouri station were scrapped after major protests. Later in the 1980s, protests were made against the creation of Lake Dunstan behind the Clyde Dam, which would flood the Cromwell Gorge and part of Cromwell township, destroying many fruit orchards and
12328-433: The low-pressure polymerization of ethene and propene . There are also some heterocyclic and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al–N bonds. The industrially most important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH 4 ), which is used as a reducing agent in organic chemistry . It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride . The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane,
12462-466: The main street of Cromwell. However, the project was given the go ahead and Lake Dunstan was filled in 1992–93. Hydroelectricity generation has remained relatively steady since 1993 – the only major hydroelectricity projects since then was the completion of the second Manapouri tailrace tunnel in 2002, increasing the station output from 585 MW to a maximum continuous rating of 850 MW, although due to resource consent conditions, maximum generation
12596-457: The market is managed by Transpower in its role as System Operator. Generators submit offers (bids) through a Wholesale Information and Trading System (WITS). Each offer covers a future half-hour period (called a trading period) and is an offer to generate a specified quantity at that time in return for a nominated price. The WITS system platform is run by the NZX . The System Operator (Transpower) uses
12730-529: The metal remained rare; its cost exceeded that of gold. The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and companions. Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used. Even then, aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample. Because of its electricity-conducting capacity, aluminium
12864-628: The metal to be isolated from alum was alumium , which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research, published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . It appeared that the name was created from the English word alum and the Latin suffix -ium ; but it was customary then to give elements names originating in Latin, so this name was not adopted universally. This name
12998-465: The metal with many uses at the time. During World War I , major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes; during World War II , demand by major governments for aviation was even higher. By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares. In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of copper , historically second in production only to iron, making it
13132-486: The metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlO x (OH) 3–2 x ). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions. In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India. The history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of alum . The first written record of alum, made by Greek historian Herodotus , dates back to
13266-400: The minor assets being sold off. MBIE published a chronology of reforms up to 2015. New Zealand's electricity sector is split into six distinct parts: Renewable energy sources generate much of the nation's electricity, with the New Zealand energy industry for example reporting a 75% share in 2013. The Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand had the goal of increasing this to 90% by 2025,
13400-485: The monomer and dimer. These dimers, such as trimethylaluminium (Al 2 Me 6 ), usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms. They are hard acids and react readily with ligands, forming adducts. In industry, they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions, as discovered by Karl Ziegler , most importantly in "growth reactions" that form long-chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols, and in
13534-506: The most produced non-ferrous metal . During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work, and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines. Earth's first artificial satellite , launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent. The aluminium can
13668-599: The next decade, the -um spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the American Chemical Society adopted this spelling. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990. In 1993, they recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant; the most recent 2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry also acknowledges this spelling. IUPAC official publications use
13802-664: The next eight years to 161 MW – the largest wind farm in New Zealand. Other major wind farms include Te Āpiti , West Wind and White Hill . Wind power in New Zealand shares the difficulties typical to other nations (uneven wind strengths, ideal locations often remote from power demand areas). New Zealand wind farms provide on average a 45% capacity factor (in other words, wind farms in New Zealand can produce more than double their average energy during periods of maximum useful wind strengths). The Tararua Wind Farm averages slightly more than this. The New Zealand Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority figures indicate that wind power
13936-644: The nine powerhouses generate approximately 7600 GW⋅h annually, around 18% of New Zealand's electricity and more than 30% of all its hydroelectricity. Manapouri Power Station is a single underground power station in Fiordland, and the largest hydroelectric station in the country. It has a maximum generating capacity of 730 MW and produces 4800 GW⋅h annually, mainly for the Tiwai Point aluminium smelter near Invercargill . Both Waitaki and Manapouri are operated by Meridian Energy. There are two power stations on
14070-507: The only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet. It is therefore a mononuclidic element and its standard atomic weight is virtually the same as that of the isotope. This makes aluminium very useful in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity. The standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals. All other isotopes of aluminium are radioactive . The most stable of these
14204-407: The oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al is either six- or four-coordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless. In aqueous solution, Al exists as the hexaaqua cation [Al(H 2 O) 6 ] , which has an approximate K a of 10 . Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively hydrolyze until
14338-460: The patents he filed between 1886 and 1903. It is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally, but Hall preferred aluminum since its introduction because it resembled platinum , the name of a prestigious metal. By 1890, both spellings had been common in the United States, the -ium spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, aluminum had become twice as common as aluminium ; in
14472-503: The preceding 12 months. New Zealand has large ocean energy resources but does not yet generate any power from them. TVNZ reported in 2007 that over 20 wave and tidal power projects are currently under development. However, not a lot of public information is available about these projects. The Aotearoa Wave and Tidal Energy Association was established in 2006 to "promote the uptake of marine energy in New Zealand". According to their latest newsletter, they have 59 members. However
14606-430: The public stage : the declaration of the Independent State of Aramoana allowed that notional entity to issue a collector's set of stamps. with original art work donated by leading New Zealand artists for the purpose, and these raised nearly NZ$ 500,000 in 1982 terms. The campaign was remarkably well funded. Several New Zealand artists were involved in the campaign in other ways, most notably Ralph Hotere , who produced
14740-423: The respective hydrogen chalcogenide . As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens, these have four-coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to wurtzite , with two-thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly (α) or random (β) fashion; the sulfide also has a γ form related to γ-alumina, and an unusual high-temperature hexagonal form where half
14874-496: The resultant publicity to build a national grassroots campaign in opposition to the smelter. The campaign attracted the attention of artists such as Ralph Hotere , as well as conservationists and heritage researchers such as Peter Entwisle . The consortium was endorsed by the New Zealand Government , which initially proposed to subsidise the cost of electricity required for the smelter's operation, leading to fears that
15008-485: The scale of the economies. However, the need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs (above all, energy) increased the net cost of aluminium; the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost. Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper. Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology, lower energy prices, exchange rates of
15142-563: The sector's regulation. Additionally, the Crown agent, the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Agency, is dedicated to promoting and managing electricity efficiency programs. In New Zealand electricity was first generated within factories for internal use. The first generation plant where power was transmitted to a remote location was established at Bullendale in Otago in 1885, to provide power for
15276-535: The separation of ownership between lines and energy businesses (either generation or supply). As a result, most of the former Electric Power Boards and Municipal Electricity Departments established electricity distribution businesses, and sold their electricity retail businesses, typically to generating companies. From April 1999, the remainder of ECNZ was split again, with the major assets formed into three new state-owned enterprises (Mighty River Power (now Mercury Energy ), Genesis Energy and Meridian Energy ) and with
15410-408: The structure of BCl 3 . Aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form Al 2 X 6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change. These materials are prepared by treating aluminium with the halogen. The aluminium trihalides form many addition compounds or complexes; their Lewis acidic nature makes them useful as catalysts for
15544-538: The subsequent Fifth National Government put priority on security of supply. New Zealand's Labour government introduced a number of measures in the 2000s as part of the vision of New Zealand becoming carbon neutral by 2020, and intended to collect levies for greenhouse gas emissions from 2010 onwards, to be added to power prices depending on the level of emissions. However, the incoming National government quickly tabled legislation to repeal some of these measures, such as obligatory targets for biofuel percentages,
15678-421: The transition from coal and gas to cleaner electricity and biomass for major energy users. This initiative, designed to reduce emissions, recognizes it will both improve energy efficiency and lead to higher electricity demand. Electricity is traded wholesale on a spot market . The market operation is managed by several service providers under agreements with the Electricity Authority . The physical operation of
15812-536: The two therefore look similar. Aluminium is also good at reflecting solar radiation , although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal; this may be prevented if aluminium is anodized , which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface. The density of aluminium is 2.70 g/cm , about 1/3 that of steel, much lower than other commonly encountered metals, making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness. Aluminium's low density compared to most other metals arises from
15946-418: The wider population of New Zealand would be faced with significant electricity price hikes in the longer term. However, the campaign waged by the independent state supporters eventually forced a government backdown, calling into question the economic viability of the project. This development combined with declining aluminium prices on world commodity markets, eventually led to the withdrawal of Alusuisse from
16080-427: The world's second large-scale geothermal power facility. Also in this area are Nga Awa Purua , which is home to the world's largest geothermal turbine at 147 MW (although the plant only generates 140 MW); and Ohaaki , which has a 105-metre tall hyperboloid natural draft cooling tower : the only one of its kind in New Zealand. A significant amount of geothermal electricity is also generated near Kawerau in
16214-517: Was 2,334 MW. The North Island generates nearly all of New Zealand's fossil-fuelled electricity. Until the 1950s, fossil-fuelled stations were small-scale and usually fuelled by coal or coal by-products, providing electricity to cities yet to be connected to hydro schemes and to provide additional support to such schemes. Large-scale coal-fired generation began in 1958 at the 210 MW Meremere Power Station . Oil-fired stations such as Otahuhu A, Marsden A&B, and New Plymouth were commissioned in
16348-418: Was 9,758 megawatts (MW), from hydroelectricity, natural gas , geothermal , wind, coal, oil, and other sources (mainly biogas, waste heat and wood). Hydroelectric power stations generate most of New Zealand's electricity, with 24,066 GW⋅h generated by hydroelectricity in 2020 – 56% of New Zealand's electricity generated that year. The total hydroelectricity installed capacity is 5,434 MW as at
16482-461: Was a salt of an earth of alum. In 1595, German doctor and chemist Andreas Libavius experimentally confirmed this. In 1722, German chemist Friedrich Hoffmann announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth. In 1754, German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding potash . Attempts to produce aluminium date back to 1760. The first successful attempt, however,
16616-527: Was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted . The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall–Héroult process developed independently by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886, and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In
16750-485: Was borrowed from French, which in turn derived it from alumen , the classical Latin name for alum , the mineral from which it was collected. The Latin word alumen stems from the Proto-Indo-European root *alu- meaning "bitter" or "beer". British chemist Humphry Davy , who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal, is credited as the person who named the element. The first name proposed for
16884-509: Was chosen as the national standard in 1920. At that time, 58.6% of the country's generating capacity used the 50 Hz three-phase system; 27.1% used direct current systems while 14.3% used other alternating current standards. While industrial use quickly took off, it was only government programmes in the first two-thirds of the 20th century that caused private demand to climb strongly as well. Rural areas were particular beneficiaries of subsidies for electrical grid systems, where supply
17018-422: Was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted . He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam , yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin. He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825. In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium. (The reason for this inconsistency
17152-492: Was criticized by contemporary chemists from France, Germany, and Sweden, who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide, alumina, from which it would be isolated. The English name alum does not come directly from Latin, whereas alumine / alumina obviously comes from the Latin word alumen (upon declension , alumen changes to alumin- ). One example was Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique (July 1811), written in French by
17286-418: Was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958. Throughout the 20th century, the production of aluminium rose rapidly: while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons, the annual production first exceeded 100,000 metric tons in 1916; 1,000,000 tons in 1941; 10,000,000 tons in 1971. In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered
17420-594: Was no immediate need to embark on a nuclear programme. The Royal Commission on Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand was set up in 1976 and reported back to the Government in April 1978. The commission concluded there was no immediate need for nuclear power in New Zealand, but may be economically possible in the early 21st century. New Zealand's national electricity transmission grid connects its generating facilities to its demand centres, which are often more than 150 km (93 mi) from each other. The national grid
17554-433: Was only discovered in 1921.) He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium. In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal. For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium. As Wöhler's method could not yield great quantities of aluminium,
17688-433: Was provided to create demand, with the intention of modernising the countryside. The results were notable; in the 1920s, electricity use increased at a rate of 22% per year. In fact, the "load building" programmes were so successful that shortages started to occur from 1936 on, though a large number of new power stations built in the 1950s enabled supply to catch up again. After the massive construction programmes had created
17822-587: Was thrust into the public arena. The Government, keen to use the smelter to justify the Clyde Dam as part of its " Think Big " programme, passed the National Development Act. Waikouaiti, now combined with Taieri to become the Silverpeaks , brought out its own district scheme with much more legally sound provisions for industrial land use, specifically a smelter, at Aramoana. Those provisions were fought by
17956-571: Was used as the cap of the Washington Monument , completed in 1885. The tallest building in the world at the time, the non-corroding metal cap was intended to serve as a lightning rod peak. The first industrial large-scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall ; it is now known as the Hall–Héroult process . The Hall–Héroult process converts alumina into metal. Austrian chemist Carl Joseph Bayer discovered
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