Genus ( / ˈ dʒ iː n ə s / ; pl. : genera / ˈ dʒ ɛ n ər ə / ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family as used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses . In binomial nomenclature , the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus.
146-422: See text Sarracenia ( / ˌ s ær ə ˈ s iː n i ə / or / ˌ s ær ə ˈ s ɛ n i ə / ) is a genus comprising 8 to 11 species of North American pitcher plants , commonly called trumpet pitchers . The genus belongs to the family Sarraceniaceae , which also contain the closely allied genera Darlingtonia and Heliamphora . Sarracenia is a genus of carnivorous plants indigenous to
292-458: A forest or wild grasslands with native pollinators near agricultural crops, such as apples, almonds or coffee can improve their yield by about 20%. The benefits of native pollinators may result in forest owners demanding payment for their contribution in the improved crop results – a simple example of the economic value of ecological services. Farmers can also raise native crops in order to promote native bee pollinator species as shown with
438-500: A bee that collects oil from Diascia capsularis , which have long spur lengths that are selected for in order to deposit pollen on the oil-collecting bee, which in turn selects for even longer legs in R. neliana and again longer spur length in D. capsularis is selected for, thus, continually driving each other's evolution. The most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat , maize , rice , soybeans and sorghum are wind pollinated or self pollinating. When considering
584-1129: A certain frequency in order to cause pollen to be released from the anthers . In zoophily , pollination is performed by vertebrates such as birds and bats , particularly, hummingbirds , sunbirds , spiderhunters , honeyeaters , and fruit bats . Ornithophily or bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by birds. Chiropterophily or bat pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by bats. Plants adapted to use bats or moths as pollinators typically have white petals, strong scent and flower at night, whereas plants that use birds as pollinators tend to produce copious nectar and have red petals. Mammals are not generally thought of as pollinators, but some rodents, bats and marsupials are significant pollinators and some even specialise in such activities. In South Africa certain species of Protea (in particular Protea humiflora , P. amplexicaulis , P. subulifolia , P. decurrens and P. cordata ) are adapted to pollination by rodents (particularly Cape Spiny Mouse , Acomys subspinosus ) and elephant shrews ( Elephantulus species). The flowers are borne near
730-402: A combination of lures (including color, scent, and nectar) and inescapability – typically the entrances to the traps are one-way by virtue of the highly adapted features listed above. Most species use a combination of scent, waxy deposits (to clog insect feet) and gravity to topple insect prey into their pitcher. Once inside, the insect finds the footing very slippery with a waxy surface covering
876-399: A commercial crop can be produced without cross-pollination, though cross-pollination usually gives a better crop. Apples are considered self-incompatible , because a commercial crop must be cross-pollinated. Many commercial fruit tree varieties are grafted clones , genetically identical. An orchard block of apples of one variety is genetically a single plant. Many growers now consider this
1022-442: A critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions. Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. The improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than
1168-488: A decline in winter managed beehives, which has reached an unprecedented rate of colony losses at near 30%. At present, there is an enormous demand for beehive rentals that cannot always be met. There is a clear need across the agricultural industry for a management tool to draw pollinators into cultivations and encourage them to preferentially visit and pollinate the flowering crop. By attracting pollinators like honey bees and increasing their foraging behavior, particularly in
1314-524: A distinct summer and winter. A few subspecies or varieties ( S. rubra subsp. alabamensis , S. rubra subsp. jonesii , and S. purpurea var. montana ) can be found more inland in mountains (e.g. the Appalachian Mountains ). Sarracenia tend to inhabit fens , herb bogs, and seasonally wet grasslands. These habitats tend to be acidic (low pH) with soil made up of sand and Sphagnum moss . Frequently,
1460-488: A dormancy period, with decreased light and temperatures, of a few months in the winter. Sarracenia do not self-pollinate and therefore require hand pollination or access to natural pollinators such as bees. Sarracenia pollen remains potent for several weeks when refrigerated, and so is stored by cultivators and used to pollinate later-flowering species. Given that all Sarracenia hybrids are fertile and will hybridize further, this characteristic allows cultivators to produce
1606-407: A focus on neonicotinoids effects on honey bee populations. Neonicotinoids insecticides have been used due to its low mammalian toxicity, target specificity, low application rates, and broad spectrum activity. However, the insecticides are able to make its way throughout the plant, which includes the pollen and nectar. Due to this, it has been shown to effect on the nervous system and colony relations in
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#17328527657821752-407: A genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of
1898-439: A good pollenizer is a plant that provides compatible, viable and plentiful pollen and blooms at the same time as the plant that is to be pollinated or has pollen that can be stored and used when needed to pollinate the desired flowers. Hybridization is effective pollination between flowers of different species , or between different breeding lines or populations. see also Heterosis . Peaches are considered self-fertile because
2044-492: A huge number of hybrids and cultivars, most bred for showy pitchers. Some of the more common named hybrids include: Sarracenia were known to Europeans as early as the 16th century, within a century of Christopher Columbus ' "discovery" of the New World . L'Obel included an illustration of S. minor in his Stirpium Adversaria Nova in 1576. The first description and plate of a Sarracenia to show up in botanical literature
2190-480: A lack of animal food and of predation pressure, might therefore favour reptiles becoming more herbivorous and more inclined to feed on pollen and nectar. Most species of lizards in the families that seem to be significant in pollination seem to carry pollen only incidentally, especially the larger species such as Varanidae and Iguanidae , but especially several species of the Gekkonidae are active pollinators, and so
2336-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as
2482-481: A limitless number of variants through hybridization. The copious seeds store well if kept dry. In climates or seasons that cannot provide the cold, damp period of stratification required by the seeds for germination, growers mimic this condition by placing the seeds in a refrigerator for 2–6 weeks, depending on species. The seeds are sown on the surface of their substrate and germinate when transferred to warmer, bright conditions. Sarracenia seedlings all look alike for
2628-492: A living record of the taxonomic, morphological and genetic diversity of the genus Sarracenia for purposes of conservation and cultivation." The NASC is a grassroots Nebraska nonprofit organization working to build a genetic Sarracenia bank by overseeing the maintenance of genetic strains from all remaining wild populations in cultivation, with the eventual aim of being able to supply these strains for re-introduction in suitable habitats. A similar but centralized collection exists in
2774-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,
2920-469: A mistake. One means of correcting this mistake is to graft a limb of an appropriate pollenizer (generally a variety of crabapple ) every six trees or so. The first fossil record for abiotic pollination is from fern -like plants in the late Carboniferous period. Gymnosperms show evidence for biotic pollination as early as the Triassic period. Many fossilized pollen grains show characteristics similar to
3066-434: A part of. This division would yield S. alabamensis , S. gulfensis , S. jonesii , S. rubra sensu stricto , S. viatorum , and S. wherryi . Others have argued that only some of these demand recognition at the species rank. Stewart McPherson and Donald Schnell carried out a comprehensive taxonomic revision of the genus in their 2011 monograph , Sarraceniaceae of North America . They recognized
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#17328527657823212-468: A pollen grain lands close enough to the tip of an ovule, it is drawn in through the micropyle ( a pore in the integuments covering the tip of the ovule) often by means of a drop of liquid known as a pollination drop. The pollen enters a pollen chamber close to the nucellus, and there it may wait for a year before it germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows through the wall of the megasporangium (=nucellus) where fertilisation takes place. During this time,
3358-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for
3504-454: A result, initial classification included many of these hybrids as separate species. A recent census of the number of hybrids and cultivars of Sarracenia species revealed about 100 unique hybrids and cultivars in cultivation. Many hybrids of Sarracenia are still commonly referred to by their obsolete species names, particularly in horticulture. These hybrids are all popularly cultivated by carnivorous plant enthusiasts, and there are consequently
3650-442: A rough, waxy coat which makes it hydrophobic, possibly for seed dispersal by flowing water. Sarracenia seed requires a stratification period to germinate in large numbers. Plants grown from seed start producing functioning traps almost immediately, although they differ in morphology from adult traps for the first year or so, being simpler in structure. Plants require 3–5 years to reach maturity from seed. Pitcher production begins at
3796-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;
3942-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and
4088-414: A vital interaction that allows the transfer of genetic material critical to the reproductive system of most flowering plants. When self-pollination occurs within a closed flower. Pollination often occurs within a species. When pollination occurs between species, it can produce hybrid offspring in nature and in plant breeding work. In angiosperms , after the pollen grain ( gametophyte ) has landed on
4234-504: A wide variety of agricultural crops, and ranks as the most frequent single species of pollinator for crops worldwide. Since the early 1900s, beekeepers in the United States started renting out their colonies to farmers to increase the farmer's crop yields, earning additional revenue from providing privatized pollination . As of 2016, 41% of an average US beekeeper's revenue comes from providing such pollination service to farmers, making it
4380-415: Is a myth that all species contain water. In fact, the hoods of the other species help to keep out rain water in addition to keeping flying prey from escaping. S. psittacina , the parrot pitcher, uses a lobster-pot style trap that will admit prey (including tadpoles and small fish during floods) but not allow it to find its way out; and sharp inward-pointing hairs force the victim gradually down to
4526-622: Is also estimated that about 42% of flowering plants have a mixed mating system in nature. In the most common kind of mixed mating system, individual plants produce a single type of flower and fruits may contain self-pollinated, out-crossed or a mixture of progeny types. Pollination also requires consideration of pollenizers , the plants that serve as the pollen source for other plants. Some plants are self-compatible ( self-fertile ) and can pollinate and fertilize themselves. Other plants have chemical or physical barriers to self-pollination . In agriculture and horticulture pollination management,
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4672-431: Is an important pollinator for alfalfa seed in western United States and Canada. Bumblebees are increasingly raised and used extensively for greenhouse tomatoes and other crops. The ecological and financial importance of natural pollination by insects to agricultural crops , improving their quality and quantity, becomes more and more appreciated and has given rise to new financial opportunities. The vicinity of
4818-513: Is at least one species of the Lacertidae , Podarcis lilfordi , which pollinates various species, but in particular is the major pollinator of Euphorbia dendroides on various Mediterranean islands. Abiotic pollination uses nonliving methods such as wind and water to move pollen from one flower to another. This allows the plant to spend energy directly on pollen rather than on attracting pollinators with flowers and nectar . Pollination by wind
4964-417: Is believed that if pollinator populations continue to decrease these deficiencies will become even more prominent. Wild pollinators often visit a large number of plant species and plants are visited by a large number of pollinator species. All these relations together form a network of interactions between plants and pollinators. Surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of
5110-452: Is causing an acceleration of the loss of pollinators. Changes in land use, harmful pesticides, and advancing climate change threaten wild pollinators, key insect species that increase yields of three-fourths of crop varieties and are critical to growing healthy foods. In some situations, farmers or horticulturists may aim to restrict natural pollination to only permit breeding with the preferred individuals plants. This may be achieved through
5256-424: Is contained within the resistant. The pollen grains are dispersed by the wind to the female, ovulate cone that is made up of many overlapping scales (sporophylls, and thus megasporophylls), each protecting two ovules, each of which consists of a megasporangium (the nucellus) wrapped in two layers of tissue, the integument and the cupule, that were derived from highly modified branches of ancestral gymnosperms. When
5402-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms
5548-422: Is held upside-down, so that the umbrella-like style catches the pollen dropped by the anthers . The stigmas are located at the tips of the umbrella-like style. The primary pollinators are bees . Bees searching for nectar must force their way past one of the stigmas to enter the chamber formed by the style. Inside, they will inevitably come in contact with a lot of pollen, both from the hanging anthers and from
5694-634: Is more common amongst abiotic pollination. Some 98% of abiotic pollination is anemophily , i.e., pollination by wind. This probably arose from insect pollination (entomophily), most likely due to changes in the environment or the availability of pollinators. The transfer of pollen is more efficient than previously thought; wind pollinated plants have developed to have specific heights, in addition to specific floral, stamen and stigma positions that promote effective pollen dispersal and transfer. Pollination by water, hydrophily , uses water to transport pollen, sometimes as whole anthers; these can travel across
5840-498: Is necessary in producing fruit with nutritional value and various flavors. Crops that do not depend on animals for pollination but on the wind or self-pollination, like corn and potatoes, have doubled in production and make up a large part of the human diet but do not provide the micronutrients that are needed. The essential nutrients that are necessary in the human diet are present in plants that rely on animal pollinators. There have been issues in vitamin and mineral deficiencies and it
5986-412: Is perhaps the most well known) has been noticed in recent years. These loss of pollinators have caused a disturbance in early plant regeneration processes such as seed dispersal and pollination. Early processes of plant regeneration greatly depend on plant-animal interactions and because these interactions are interrupted, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are threatened. Pollination by animals aids in
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6132-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,
6278-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with
6424-408: Is the decline of biodiversity through the deaths of commercial and wild bees. Despite losing about a third of their workforce every year, beekeepers continue to rent out their bees to almond farms due to the high pay from the almond industry. In 2016, a colony rented out for almond pollination gave beekeepers an income of $ 165 per colony rented, around three times from average of other crops that use
6570-421: Is the fact that in open land the butterflies would be exposed to desiccation and predation. These open regions are caused by habitat destruction like logging for timber, livestock grazing, and firewood collection. Due to this destruction, butterfly species' diversity can decrease and it is known that there is a correlation in butterfly diversity and plant diversity. Besides the imbalance of the ecosystem caused by
6716-445: Is the operculum (or hood), zone 2 is the peristome and rest of the trap entrance, while zones 3 and 4 (which in some species are combined) and 5 (only present in S. purpurea ) are further divisions of the actual tube. Each of these zones has a specific function, with corresponding morphophysiological characteristics. All Sarracenia trap insects and other prey without the use of moving parts. Their traps are static and are based on
6862-428: Is used by a small percentage of plants. Heavy rain discourages insect pollination and damages unprotected flowers, but can itself disperse pollen of suitably adapted plants, such as Ranunculus flammula , Narthecium ossifragum , and Caltha palustris . In these plants, excess rain drains allowing the floating pollen to come in contact with the stigma. In some orchids ombrophily occurs, and rain water splashes cause
7008-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to
7154-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;
7300-448: The combine harvesters follow the wheat harvest from Texas to Manitoba , beekeepers follow the bloom from south to north, to provide pollination for many different crops. In America, bees are brought to commercial plantings of cucumbers , squash , melons , strawberries , and many other crops. Honey bees are not the only managed pollinators: a few other species of bees are also raised as pollinators. The alfalfa leafcutter bee
7446-504: The dinosaur era. Insect pollinators such as honey bees ( Apis spp.), bumblebees ( Bombus spp.), and butterflies (e.g., Thymelicus flavus ) have been observed to engage in flower constancy , which means they are more likely to transfer pollen to other conspecific plants. This can be beneficial for the pollinators, as flower constancy prevents the loss of pollen during interspecific flights and pollinators from clogging stigmas with pollen of other flower species. It also improves
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#17328527657827592-501: The division of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes of fertilisation are found in gymnosperms: cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm that are unable to swim but are conveyed to the egg along a pollen tube. The study of pollination spans many disciplines, such as botany , horticulture , entomology , and ecology . The pollination process as an interaction between flower and pollen vector
7738-463: The eastern seaboard of the United States , Texas , the Great Lakes area and southeastern Canada, with most species occurring only in the south-east United States (only S. purpurea occurs in cold-temperate regions). The plant's leaves have evolved into a funnel or pitcher shape in order to trap insects . The plant attracts its insect prey with secretions from extrafloral nectaries on
7884-426: The egg cell to produce the embryo . Hence the term: " double fertilisation ". This process would result in the production of a seed, made of both nutritious tissues and embryo. In gymnosperms , the ovule is not contained in a carpel, but exposed on the surface of a dedicated support organ, such as the scale of a cone, so that the penetration of carpel tissue is unnecessary. Details of the process vary according to
8030-419: The nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,
8176-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,
8322-407: The pollen from one flower to another. Abiotic pollination relies on wind, water or even rain. Adding natural habitat areas into farm systems generally improves pollination, as farms that are closer to natural habitat have higher crop yield because they are visited by more pollinators. About 80% of angiosperms rely on biotic pollination. (also called pollen vectors): organisms that carry or move
8468-402: The stigma , it germinates and develops a pollen tube which grows down the style until it reaches an ovary . Its two gametes travel down the tube to where the gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes are held within the carpel . After entering an ovule through the micropyle , one male nucleus fuses with the polar bodies to produce the endosperm tissues , while the other fuses with
8614-412: The 1930s greatly increased the knowledge of this genus, which has further been extended by the more recent works of C. Ritchie Bell (1949–52), Donald E. Schnell (1970–2002), Frederick W. Case (1970–2000s), and T. Lawrence Mellichamp (1980s-2000s). Sarracenia are considered easy to grow and are widely propagated and cultivated by gardeners and carnivorous plant enthusiasts. Several hybrids between
8760-575: The UK, with 2000+ clones representing all species (many with location data) and numerous hybrids currently being housed by Sarracenia expert Mike King. This UK collection is part of the NCCPG National Plant Collection scheme. While none of these efforts curb the biggest threats – urban development and habitat destruction – they aim to help reduce plant poaching while at the same time making these plants available to future generations. One of
8906-469: The United States, an $ 11 billion industry based almost exclusively in the state of California, is heavily dependent on imported honeybees for pollination of almond trees. Almond industry uses up to 82% of the services in the pollination market. Each February, around 60% of the all bee colonies in the US are moved to California's Central Valley . Over the past decade, beekeepers across the US have reported that
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#17328527657829052-785: The anther cap to be removed, allowing for the pollen to be exposed. After exposure, raindrops causes the pollen to be shot upward, when the stipe pulls them back, and then fall into the cavity of the stigma. Thus, for the orchid Acampe rigida , this allows the plant to self-pollinate, which is useful when biotic pollinators in the environment have decreased. It is possible for a plant to have varying pollination methods, including both biotic and abiotic pollination. The orchid Oeceoclades maculata uses both rain and butterflies, depending on its environmental conditions. Pollination can be accomplished by cross-pollination or by self-pollination : An estimated 48.7% of plant species are either dioecious or self-incompatible obligate out-crossers. It
9198-436: The area is forage poor or even deadly to bees for the rest of the season. The other trend is the decline of pollinator populations , due to pesticide misuse and overuse, new diseases and parasites of bees, clearcut logging , decline of beekeeping, suburban development, removal of hedges and other habitat from farms , and public concern about bees. Widespread aerial spraying for mosquitoes due to West Nile fears
9344-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of
9490-404: The base of the pitcher where it is digested. Coniine , a toxic alkaloid also present in poison hemlock , was first detected in the nectar of S. flava . and has since been detected in 7 other species of Sarracenia . While it was demonstrated that concentrated extracts from S. flava could paralyze ants, it has not been demonstrated that coniine has narcotic effects on insects at
9636-524: The bees in the US as mentioned above, will be mixed with bees from thousands of other hives provided by different beekeepers, making them exponentially susceptible to diseases and mites that any of them could be carrying. The deaths do not stop at commercial honeybees as there is evidence of significant pathogen spillover to other pollinators including wild bumble bees, infecting up to 35-100% of wild bees within 2 km radius of commercial pollination. The negative externality of private pollination services
9782-438: The beginning of the mutualism between hymenopterans and angiosperms. Bees provide a good example of the mutualism that exists between hymenopterans and angiosperms. Flowers provide bees with nectar (an energy source) and pollen (a source of protein). When bees go from flower to flower collecting pollen they are also depositing pollen grains onto the flowers, thus pollinating them. While pollen and nectar, in most cases, are
9928-452: The biggest challenges of reintroducing plants back into the wild is the unintended introduction of unwanted species, such as pests, diseases, and invasive weeds. Often, it is human destruction of areas in which the Sarracenia thrive that is a major killer. Aside from determining what genetic material is appropriate for reintroduction (which is up for debate), plants must be semi-aseptic to keep
10074-430: The biggest proportion of their income, with the rest coming from sales of honey, beeswax, government subsidy, etc. This is an example of how a positive externality , pollination of crops from beekeeping and honey-making, was successfully accounted for and incorporated into the overall market for agriculture. On top of assisting food production, pollination service provide beneficial spillovers as bees germinate not only
10220-426: The biotically dispersed pollen today. Furthermore, the gut contents, wing structures, and mouthpart morphology of fossilized beetles and flies suggest that they acted as early pollinators. The association between beetles and angiosperms during the early Cretaceous period led to parallel radiations of angiosperms and insects into the late Cretaceous. The evolution of nectaries in late Cretaceous flowers signals
10366-436: The case of neonicotinoids that harm bee colonies. Many researchers believe it is the synergistic effects of these factors which are ultimately detrimental to pollinator populations. In the agriculture industry, climate change is causing a "pollinator crisis". This crisis is affecting the production of crops, and the relating costs, due to a decrease in pollination processes. This disturbance can be phenological or spatial. In
10512-403: The center of large plots, we can increase grower returns and optimize yield from their plantings. ISCA Technologies, from Riverside, California , created a semiochemical formulation called SPLAT Bloom, that modifies the behavior of honey bees, inciting them to visit flowers in every portion of the field. Loss of pollinators, also known as pollinator decline (of which colony collapse disorder
10658-421: The center of the crown. The trap is a vertical tube with a 'hood' (the operculum ) extending over its entrance; and below it the top of the tube usually has a rolled lip (the peristome ) which secretes nectar and scents. The hood itself frequently produces nectar too, but in lesser quantities. The inside of the pitcher tube, depending on the species, can be divided into three to five distinguishable zones: zone 1
10804-485: The colonies affected and the colonies themselves. Pollution and pesticides are detrimental to the health of the bees and their colonies as the bees' ability to pollinate and return to their colonies are great greatly compromised. Moreover, California's Central Valley is determined by the World Health Organization as the location of country's worst air pollution . Almond pollinating bees, approximately 60% of
10950-753: The concentrations naturally present in pitchers of S. flava . Other authors hypothesize that coniine may function as an attractant for insects, or may function both as an attractant and a narcotic. Flowers are produced early in spring, with or slightly ahead of the first pitchers. They are held singly on long stems, generally well above the pitcher traps to avoid the trapping of potential pollinators . The flowers, which depending on species are 3–10 centimeters in diameter, are dramatic and have an elaborate design which prevents self-pollination. It consists of five sepals superintended by three bracts , numerous anthers, and an umbrella -like five-pointed style , over which five long yellow or red petals dangle. The whole flower
11096-465: The conversion to secondary forest habitat. Defaunation of frugivores is also an important driver. These alterations are especially harmful due to the sensitivity of the pollination process of plants. Research on tropical palms found that defaunation has caused a decline in seed dispersal, which causes a decrease in genetic variability in this species. Habitat destruction such as fragmentation and selective logging remove areas that are most optimal for
11242-521: The crops, but also other plants around the area that they are set loose to pollinate, increasing biodiversity for the local ecosystem . There is even further spillover as biodiversity increases ecosystem resistance for wildlife and crops. Due to their role of pollination in crop production, commercial honeybees are considered to be livestock by the US Department of Agriculture . The impact of pollination varies by crop. For example, almond production in
11388-446: The damaging effects (soil compaction and altered moisture levels) of repeated foot and vehicular traffic that comes with harvesting. The Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that approximately 1.6 million pitchers were cut for the domestic market in 1991. Some protective legislation exists. Several southeastern states, such as Florida , Georgia , and South Carolina have conservation laws which protect Sarracenia . However, most of
11534-502: The decline in pollinators, it may jeopardise food security . Pollination is necessary for plants to continue their populations and 3/4 of the plant species that contribute to the world's food supply are plants that require pollinators. Insect pollinators, like bees, are large contributors to crop production, over 200 billion dollars worth of crop species are pollinated by these insects. Pollinators are also essential because they improve crop quality and increase genetic diversity, which
11680-426: The described subspecific taxa of S. rubra into 3 to 5 species. Similarly, S. rosea is not always recognized as a species distinct from S. purpurea . The most commonly recognized species include: Currently, S. rubra can be described as having six subspecies, though it is sometimes argued that the subspecies should be elevated to species rank in recognition of the species complex that they are
11826-458: The different types of pollinators, which removes pollinators food resources, nesting sites, and leads to isolation of populations. The effect of pesticides on pollinators has been debated because it is difficult to determine that a single pesticide is the cause as opposed to a mixture or other threats. Whether exposure alone causes damage, or if the duration and potency are also factors is unknown. However, insecticides have negative effects, as in
11972-462: The end of the flowering period in spring, and lasts until late autumn. At the end of autumn, the pitchers begin to wither and the plants produce non-carnivorous leaves called phyllodia, which play a role in the economics of carnivory in these species. Since the supply of insects during winter is decreased, and the onset of cold weather slows plant metabolism and other processes, putting energy into producing carnivorous leaves would be uneconomical for
12118-451: The end of the flowering period, the petals drop and the ovary, if pollinated, begins to swell. The seed forms in five lobes, with one lobe producing significantly smaller numbers of seeds than the other lobes. On average, 300–600 seed are produced, depending on species and pollination success. Seed takes five months to mature, at which point the seed pod turns brown and splits open, scattering seed. The seeds are 1.5–2 mm in length and have
12264-493: The existing threats to plants. In 2003 the International Carnivorous Plant Society ran a trial distribution program in which young S. rubra subsp. alabamanensis plants were grown from seed collected from 3 of the 12 known S. alabamanensis sites, and were distributed to members in an attempt to increase availability of this plant in cultivation, with the hopes of thereby decreasing
12410-526: The female gametophytes, which are very strongly reduced, each consisting only of a few cells, one of which is the egg. When a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of a carpel it germinates, developing a pollen tube that grows through the tissues of the style, entering the ovule through the micropyle. When the tube reaches the egg sac, two sperm cells pass through it into the female gametophyte and fertilisation takes place. Pollination may be biotic or abiotic. Biotic pollination relies on living pollinators to move
12556-469: The field have a higher chance of long-term survival compared to planting smaller seedlings. The genus Sarracenia belongs to the family Sarraceniaceae , which also contain the closely allied genera Darlingtonia and Heliamphora . Under the Cronquist system , this family was put in the order Nepenthales along with Nepenthaceae and Droseraceae . The APG II system , however, assigns Sarraceniaceae to
12702-570: The first case, species that normally occur in similar seasons or time cycles, now have different responses to environmental changes and therefore no longer interact. For example, a tree may flower sooner than usual, while the pollinator may reproduce later in the year and therefore the two species no longer coincide in time. Spatial disturbances occur when two species that would normally share the same distribution now respond differently to climate change and are shifting to different regions. The most known and understood pollinator, bees, have been used as
12848-417: The first two or three years; the plants reach maturity after four or five years. Regular fertilization (twice a month between April and September) with a balanced fertilizer at the rate of 1 teaspoon per gallon (using a 15-16-17 peat-lite or similar fertilizer) will speed their growth and time to maturity. It is advisable to leach regularly with pure water to prevent the buildup of solutes (fertilizer salts) in
12994-583: The following taxa: Note: The entity McPherson and Schnell referred to as S. rubra "Incompletely diagnosed taxon from Georgia and South Carolina" has since been established as Sarracenia rubra subsp. viatorum B.Rice. Sarracenia species hybridize and produce fertile offspring freely, making proper classification difficult. Sarracenia hybrids are able to hybridize further, giving the possibility of hundreds of different hybrids that have multiple species in varying amounts in their ancestry. Since many species ranges overlap, natural hybrids are relatively common. As
13140-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this
13286-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,
13432-507: The genetic variability and diversity within plants because it allows for out-crossing instead for self-crossing. Without this genetic diversity there would be a lack of traits for natural selection to act on for the survival of the plant species. Seed dispersal is also important for plant fitness because it allows plants the ability to expand their populations. More than that, it permits plants to escape environments that have changed and have become difficult to reside in. All of these factors show
13578-556: The ground, are yeasty smelling, not colourful, and sunbirds reject the nectar with its high xylose content. The mice apparently can digest the xylose and they eat large quantities of the pollen. In Australia pollination by flying, gliding and earthbound mammals has been demonstrated. Reptile pollinators are known, but they form a minority in most ecological situations. They are most frequent and most ecologically significant in island systems, where insect and sometimes also bird populations may be unstable and less species-rich. Adaptation to
13724-470: The habitat pristine and sustainable in the long term. Another challenge is maintaining all of the introduced plant material and determining an optimal site to plant them in. A single hurricane or storm event can change the dynamics of a field. Even within a single bog, some areas may be waterlogged, while other areas may become very dry, so identifying the right location is critical. Short term results on private property indicate planting larger specimens into
13870-401: The honey bee populations. Butterflies too have suffered due to these modifications. Butterflies are helpful ecological indicators since they are sensitive to changes within the environment like the season, altitude, and above all, human impact on the environment . Butterfly populations were higher within the natural forest and were lower in open land. The reason for the difference in density
14016-672: The importance of pollinators for plants, which are a significant part of the foundation for a stable ecosystem. If only a few species of plants depended on Loss of pollinators is especially devastating because there are so many plant species rely on them. More than 87.5% of angiosperms , over 75% of tropical tree species, and 30-40% of tree species in temperate regions depend on pollination and seed dispersal. Factors that contribute to pollinator decline include habitat destruction , pesticide , parasitism / diseases , and climate change . The more destructive forms of human disturbances are land use changes such as fragmentation, selective logging, and
14162-433: The improvement needed to return to conditions at which the pollinator community collapsed. While there are 200,000 - 350,000 different species of animals that help pollination, honeybees are responsible for majority of the pollination for consumed crops, providing between $ 235 and $ 577 US billion of benefits to global food production. The western honey bee ( Apis mellifera L.) provides highly valued pollination services for
14308-421: The interactions between plants and pollinators. This structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species. The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for
14454-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,
14600-501: The late 17th century sent live specimens of S. purpurea to the Parisian botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort , who thereupon described the species. Linnaeus adopted this name when he published his Species Plantarum (1753), using it for the two known species at the time: S. purpurea and S. flava . The first successful flowering in culture occurred in 1773. In 1793 William Bartram noted in his book about his travels in
14746-464: The lip of the pitcher leaves, as well as a combination of the leaves' color and scent. Slippery footing at the pitcher's rim causes insects to fall inside, where they die and are digested by the plant with proteases and other enzymes. Sarracenia are herbaceous perennial plants that grow from a subterranean rhizome , with many tubular pitcher-shaped leaves radiating out from the growing point, and then turning upwards with their trap openings facing
14892-578: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Pollination Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds . Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, for example beetles or butterflies; birds, and bats; water; wind; and even plants themselves. Pollinating animals travel from plant to plant carrying pollen on their bodies in
15038-470: The megasporangium wall and delivers the sperm cells to the female gametophyte inside. Fertilisation takes place when the nucleus of one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell in the megagametophyte's archegonium. In flowering plants, the anthers of the flower produce microspores by meiosis. These undergo mitosis to form male gametophytes, each of which contains two haploid cells. Meanwhile, the ovules produce megaspores by meiosis, further division of these form
15184-476: The megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four haploid cells, three of which degenerate. The surviving one develops as a megaspore and divides repeatedly to form an immature female gametophyte (egg sac). Two or three archegonia containing an egg then develop inside the gametophyte. Meanwhile, in the spring of the second year two sperm cells are produced by mitosis of the body cell of the male gametophyte. The pollen tube elongates and pierces and grows through
15330-412: The microsporangia divide by meiosis to form haploid microspores that develop further by two mitotic divisions into immature male gametophytes (pollen grains). The four resulting cells consist of a large tube cell that forms the pollen tube , a generative cell that will produce two sperm by mitosis , and two prothallial cells that degenerate. These cells comprise a very reduced microgametophyte , that
15476-402: The mortality rate of their bee colonies has stayed constant at about 30% every year, making the deaths an expected cost of business for the beekeepers. While the exact cause of this phenomenon is unknown, according to the US Department of Agriculture Colony Collapse Disorder Progress Report it can be traced to factors such as pollution, pesticides, and pathogens from evidences found in areas of
15622-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus
15768-430: The most frequent visitors, these include monkeys, lemurs, squirrels, rodents and possums. Entomophily , pollination by insects , often occurs on plants that have developed colored petals and a strong scent to attract insects such as bees, wasps, and occasionally ants ( Hymenoptera ), beetles ( Coleoptera ), moths and butterflies ( Lepidoptera ), and flies ( Diptera ). The existence of insect pollination dates back to
15914-479: The most likely source is Cartier's expeditions to what is now Quebec between 1534 and 1541. The fragile flowerless specimen that made its way to Clusius 60 years later was enough to excite his interest, but not enough for him to place it among related plants; his closest guess was the wholly unrelated Sea Lavender genus. The name Sarracenia was first employed by Michel Sarrazin , the Father of Canadian Botany who in
16060-474: The most notable reward attained from flowers, bees also visit flowers for other resources such as oil, fragrance, resin and even waxes. It has been estimated that bees originated with the origin or diversification of angiosperms . In addition, cases of coevolution between bee species and flowering plants have been illustrated by specialized adaptations. For example, long legs are selected for in Rediviva neliana ,
16206-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this
16352-671: The native sweat bees L. vierecki in Delaware and L. leucozonium in southwest Virginia. The American Institute of Biological Sciences reports that native insect pollination saves the United States agricultural economy nearly an estimated $ 3.1 billion annually through natural crop production; pollination produces some $ 40 billion worth of products annually in the United States alone. Pollination of food crops has become an environmental issue , due to two trends. The trend to monoculture means that greater concentrations of pollinators are needed at bloom time than ever before, yet
16498-674: The oldest known occurrence in the Swiss Jura mountains is around one hundred years old. Besides Switzerland , such naturalized populations can be found in Ireland , England (Lake District), Germany ( Bavaria , Lusatia ) and in Mendocino County along the California coast. Sarracenia are threatened in the wild by development and the drainage of their habitat . Estimates indicated that 97.5% of Sarracenia habitat has already been destroyed in
16644-399: The order Ericales and the other two families to the order Caryophyllales . Typically anywhere from 8 to 11 species of Sarracenia are generally recognized, depending on individual opinions on the biological species concept and which among many subspecies and varieties should be elevated to species status, a common lumping and splitting problem in demarcation. Some authorities split
16790-464: The plant. The genus has been found to have a Chromosome number of 2n =26, though some earlier studies had found that number to be 2n =24. Seven of the eight species are confined to the south-eastern coastal plain of the United States . One species, S. purpurea , continues north and west well into Canada . The typical habitat is warm-temperate; all Sarracenia are perennial and require
16936-530: The poaching that was endangering the survival of this taxon in the wild. In 1995, the non-profit organization Meadowview Biological Research Station was created to preserve and restore pitcher plant bogs and associated ecosystems in Maryland and Virginia . In 2004, a number of concerned plant enthusiasts founded the North American Sarracenia Conservancy (NASC), which aims to "serve as
17082-549: The pollen collected by the style. Upon exiting, the bees must force their way under one of the flap-like petals. This keeps them away from the stigma, avoiding self-pollination. The next flower visited receives on its stigmata some of the first flower's pollen, and the cycle continues. Floral formula : Ca Co A G The flowers of almost all species are scented. The scent varies, but is often strong and sometimes unpleasant. S. flava has an especially strong odor resembling cat urine . Flowers generally last about two weeks. At
17228-688: The pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane. Activation involves the development of actin filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, which eventually become concentrated at the point from which the pollen tube will emerge. Hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow. In conifers, the reproductive structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones (male) or ovulate cones (female), but some species are monoecious and others dioecious . A pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on (or borne on) reproductive structures called sporophylls. Spore mother cells in
17374-413: The pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma) of another. Between 100,000 and 200,000 species of animal act as pollinators of the world's 250,000 species of flowering plant. The majority of these pollinators are insects , but about 1,500 species of birds and mammals visit flowers and may transfer pollen between them. Besides birds and bats which are
17520-399: The pollination season were too short. Some flowers have specialized mechanisms to trap pollinators to increase effectiveness, attach pollen to specific body parts (as happens in many orchid and Asclepias species ), or require specialized behaviors or morphology in order to extract pollen or nectar. One such syndrome is " buzz pollination " (or "sonication"), where a bee must vibrate at
17666-410: The pollinators themselves. Pollen germination has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced, enabling it to be more easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of
17812-545: The prime example of the decline in pollinators. Bees are essential in the pollination of agricultural crops and wild plants and are one of the main insects that perform this task. Out of the bees species, the honey bee or Apis mellifera has been studied the most and in the United States, there has been a loss of 59% of colonies from 1947 to 2005. The decrease in populations of the honey bee have been attributed to pesticides, genetically modified crops, fragmentation, parasites and diseases that have been introduced. There has been
17958-1128: The probability that the pollinator will find productive flowers easily accessible and recognisable by familiar clues. The primary insect pollinators are hymenopterans , mostly bees , but also including sawflies , ants , and many species of wasps. Many flowers attract pollinators by odor. For example, orchid bee species such as Euglossa cordata are attracted to orchids this way, and it has been suggested that some orchid species intoxicate bees during visits which can last up to 90 minutes. However, in general, plants that rely on pollen vectors tend to be adapted to their particular type of vector, for example day-pollinated species tend to be brightly coloured and have little odor, but if they are pollinated largely by birds or specialist mammals, they tend to be larger and have larger nectar rewards than species that are strictly insect-pollinated. Night-blooming flowers have little color, but are often very aromatic. Plants with vertebrate pollinators also tend to spread their rewards over longer periods, having long flowering seasons; their specialist pollinators would be likely to starve if
18104-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for
18250-1033: The remaining wetlands in the southeastern U.S. are privately owned. Plants on this land are not protected by state legislation. The key states of Alabama and Mississippi have no such legislation at all, so that even plants on public land have no protection. Three Sarracenia have been listed as "Federally Endangered" under the USA Endangered Species Act (1973) – S. rubra subsp. alabamensis ( S. alabamensis ) in Alabama , S. rubra subsp. jonesii ( S. jonesii ) in North and South Carolina , and S. oreophila in Alabama , Georgia , and North Carolina . These taxa are also on CITES Appendix I, giving them international protection by making export of wild-collected plants illegal. The other species, while appearing on CITES Appendix II, have little federal protection. Some efforts have been made to curb
18396-466: The same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or
18542-408: The scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of a species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in
18688-500: The section usually generates a new crown of pitchers. A further technique is employed to encourage new crowns to appear which does not involve division of the rhizome: small notches up to 5 mm deep are cut into the top of the rhizome, whereupon a new crown frequently develops at the site of the notch. The following have won the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit : Genus The composition of
18834-897: The soil will be poor in nutrients, particularly nitrates , and often continuously leached by moving water or made unavailable to the plant roots by the low pH. The plants gain their advantage from their ability to extract nutrients from insect prey in this mineral-poor environment. The plants prefer strong, direct sunlight with no shade. Sarracenia habitats in the southeastern Coastal Plain consist primarily of fire-maintained pine savannas, wet prairies, or seepage bogs. Without frequent fire (1–3 years), these habitats undergo ecological succession and are quickly invaded by woody shrubs and trees, which eliminate Sarracenia by increasing shade and reducing soil moisture. In several cases, carnivorous plant enthusiasts have introduced S. purpurea into suitable habitats outside of its natural range, where it has naturalized. Some of these populations are decades old;
18980-474: The soil. Deep water in a potted plant keeps the soil too waterlogged for proper root functioning. Mature Sarracenia are commonly propagated by division. Their rhizomes extend and produce new crowns of pitchers over the course of a few growing seasons, and cultivators divide and separate the rhizomes during the plant's winter dormancy or early in the growing season. This technique is also used to separate sections of rhizomes which have no pitchers: when re-potted,
19126-409: The southeast U.S. that numerous insects were caught in the pitchers of these plants, but doubted that any benefit could be derived from them. It was not until 1887 that research by Joseph H. Mellichamp proved the carnivorous nature of this genus. This finding was supported by a study by J.S. Hepburn, E.Q. St. John and F.M. Jones in 1920. Extended field surveys and laboratory studies by Edgar Wherry in
19272-422: The southeastern U.S., the home of all but one subspecies of Sarracenia . Currently the biggest threats to surviving populations are urban development , drainage of habitat for forestry , runoff of herbicides from agriculture , fire suppression, cut pitcher trade for floristry , and plant trade. The latter two threaten survival of Sarracenia not only through depletion of healthy population, but also because of
19418-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,
19564-426: The stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific way in which plant-pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh. This means that pollinator species together can survive under harsh conditions. But it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass
19710-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being
19856-437: The surface of the water to carry dry pollen from one flower to another. In Vallisneria spiralis , an unopened male flower floats to the surface of the water, and, upon reaching the surface, opens up and the fertile anthers project forward. The female flower, also floating, has its stigma protected from the water, while its sepals are slightly depressed into the water, allowing the male flowers to tumble in. Rain pollination
20002-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for
20148-469: The top 15 crops contributing to the human diet globally in 2013, slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops (211 out of 1916 kcal/person/day) is dependent upon insect pollination. Pollination management is a branch of agriculture that seeks to protect and enhance present pollinators and often involves the culture and addition of pollinators in monoculture situations, such as commercial fruit orchards . The largest managed pollination event in
20294-415: The use of pollination bags . In some instances growers' demand for beehives far exceeds the available supply. The number of managed beehives in the US has steadily declined from close to 6 million after WWII, to less than 2.5 million today. In contrast, the area dedicated to growing bee-pollinated crops has grown over 300% in the same time period. Additionally, in the past five years there has been
20440-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up
20586-606: The very hardy S. purpurea and showy species like S. leucophylla are becoming common in garden centers in North America and Europe. Sarracenia require constantly moist-wet, nutrient free acidic soil. This is most often achieved with a potting mix consisting of peat moss mixed with sand or perlite . As their roots are sensitive to nutrients and minerals, only pure water, such as distilled, rain, or reverse osmosis water, can be used to water them. Sarracenia prefer sunny conditions during their growing season but require
20732-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in
20878-455: The walls of the pitcher. Further down the tube, downward-pointing hairs make retreat impossible, and in the lowest region of the tube, a pool of liquid containing digestive enzymes and wetting agents quickly drowns the prey and begins digestion. The exoskeletons are usually not digested, and over the course of the summer fill up the pitcher tube. Only S. purpurea normally contains significant amounts of rainwater in its tubular pitchers. It
21024-426: The world is in California almond orchards, where nearly half (about one million hives ) of the US honey bees are trucked to the almond orchards each spring. New York 's apple crop requires about 30,000 hives; Maine 's blueberry crop uses about 50,000 hives each year. The US solution to the pollinator shortage, so far, has been for commercial beekeepers to become pollination contractors and to migrate. Just as
21170-404: Was first addressed in the 18th century by Christian Konrad Sprengel . It is important in horticulture and agriculture , because fruiting is dependent on fertilisation: the result of pollination. The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology . There are also studies in economics that look at the positives and negatives of pollination, focused on bees, and how the process affects
21316-407: Was published by Carolus Clusius, who received a partial dried specimen of what was later determined to be S. purpurea subsp. purpurea , publishing it under the name Limonium peregrinum . The exact origins of this specimen remains unknown, as few explorers are known to have collected plant specimens from the range of this subspecies before that time. Cheek and Young suggest that
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