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66-688: The Samareitikon (Greek: τὸ Σαμαρειτικὸν) is the name given to the Greek translation of the Samaritan Pentateuch . The Samareitikon is obtained only from marginal notes in other manuscripts and quotations in Origen . As Samuel Kohn has shown, these passages show dependencies on the Samaritan Targum . According to Emanuel Tov, however, it is only an early revision of the Septuagint text, which could also be

132-517: A Samaritan priest who died c.  20 BCE . The Samaritan Targum has a complex textual tradition represented by manuscripts belonging to one of three fundamental text types exhibiting substantial divergences from one another. Affinities that the oldest of these textual traditions share with the Dead Sea Scrolls and Onkelos suggest that the Targum may originate from the same school which finalized

198-773: A Samaritan version of the Septuagint. This thesis may be supported by the text version of an inscription found in Thessaloniki with the Aaronic blessing Book of Numbers 6,22-27 in a building in the 4th century Samaritan synagogue. Samaritan Pentateuch Some six thousand differences exist between the Samaritan and the Jewish Masoretic Text . Most are minor variations in the spelling of words or grammatical constructions , but others involve significant semantic changes, such as

264-445: A continuous length of parchment sewn together from the skins of rams that, according to a Samaritan tradition, were ritually sacrificed. The text is written in gold letters. Rollers tipped with ornamental knobs are attached to both ends of the parchment and the whole is kept in a cylindrical silver case when not in use. Samaritans claim it was penned by Abishua , great-grandson of Aaron ( 1 Chronicles 6:35 ), thirteen years after

330-608: A parallel column and sometimes the Aramaic text of the Samaritan Targum in a third. Later Arabic translations also appeared; one featured a further Samaritan revision of Saadia Gaon's translation to bring it into greater conformity with the Samaritan Pentateuch and others were based upon Arabic Pentateuchal translations used by Christians. In April 2013, a complete English translation of the Samaritan Pentateuch comparing it to

396-468: A particular interest in the study of the Samaritan Pentateuch on account of the antiquity of the text and its frequent agreements with the Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate. Some Catholics including Jean Morin , a convert from Calvinism to Catholicism, argued that the Samaritan Pentateuch's correspondences with the Latin Vulgate and Septuagint indicated that it represents a more authentic Hebrew text than

462-655: A view based on the biblical Book of Ezra (Ezra 4:11), the Samaritans are the people of Samaria who parted ways with the people of Judah (the Judahites) in the Persian period . The Samaritans believe that it was not they, but the Jews, who separated from the authentic stream of the Israelite tradition and law, around the time of Eli , in the 11th century BCE. Modern scholarship connects

528-606: Is interrupted by chapters 8–10, which concern Ezra. These have sometimes been identified as another, separate work, the Ezra Memorial (EM), but other scholars believe the EM to be fictional and heavily altered by later editors. Both the Nehemiah and Ezra material are combined with numerous lists, Censuses and other material. The first edition of the combined Ezra–Nehemiah may date from the early 4th century BC; further editing continued well into

594-519: The Achaemenid Empire . The capital of the empire is at Susa . Nehemiah is a cup-bearer to king Artaxerxes I of Persia – an important official position. At his own request Nehemiah is sent to Jerusalem as governor of Yehud, the official Persian name for Judah. Jerusalem had been conquered and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BC and Nehemiah finds it still in ruins. His task is to rebuild

660-550: The Book of Ezra around 400 BC. Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era . The book tells how Nehemiah, at the court of the king in Susa , is informed that Jerusalem is without walls, and resolves to restore them. The king appoints him as governor of Judah and he travels to Jerusalem. There he rebuilds the walls, despite the opposition of Israel's enemies, and reforms

726-684: The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, which include the oldest known versions of the Torah . In Deuteronomy 27:4–7, the Dead Sea scroll fragments bring "Gerizim" instead of "Ebal", indicating that the Samaritan version was likely the original reading. Other differences between the Samaritan and the Masoretic (Jewish) texts include: In Numbers 12:1, the Samaritan Pentateuch refers to Moses ' wife as kaashet , which translates as 'the beautiful woman', while

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792-572: The Middle Ages . The scroll contains a cryptogram, dubbed the tashqil by scholars, which Samaritans consider to be Abishua's ancient colophon: I am Abishua, the son of Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the Priest , unto them be accorded the grace of YHWH and His glory—I wrote this holy book at the entrance of the tabernacle on Mount Gerizim, in the year thirteen of the Israelites' possession of

858-672: The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet used by the Israelite community prior to the Babylonian captivity. During the exile in Babylon, Jews adopted the Ashuri script , based on the Babylonians' Aramaic alphabet , which was developed into the modern Hebrew alphabet . Originally, all manuscripts of the Samaritan Pentateuch consisted of unvocalized text written using only the letters of the Samaritan alphabet. Beginning in

924-543: The Septuagint , and its even closer agreements with the present Masoretic Text , all suggest a date about 122 BCE. Excavation work undertaken since 1982 by Yitzhak Magen has firmly dated the temple structures on Gerizim to the middle of the fifth century BCE, built by Sanballat the Horonite , a contemporary of Ezra and Nehemiah, who lived more than one hundred years before the Sanballat mentioned by Josephus. The adoption of

990-549: The "land of Moreh" (Hebrew: מוראה ), while the Jewish Pentateuch has "land of Moriah " (Hebrew: מריה ). The Samaritan "Moreh" describes the region around Shechem and modern-day Nablus , where the Samaritans' holy Mount Gerizim is situated, while Jews claim the land is the same as Mount Moriah , in Jerusalem. The Vulgate translates this phrase as in terram visionis ('in the land of vision') which implies that Jerome

1056-462: The 12th century, some manuscripts show a partial vocalization resembling the Jewish Tiberian vocalization used in Masoretic manuscripts. More recently, manuscripts have been produced with full vocalization. The Samaritan Pentateuchal text is divided into 904 paragraphs. Divisions between sections of text are marked with various combinations of lines, dots or an asterisk; a dot is used to indicate

1122-792: The 16th century, it has generally been treated as a separate book within the Bible. Before then it had been included in the Book of Ezra but, in Latin Christian Bibles from the 13th century onwards, the Vulgate Book of Ezra was divided into two texts, called respectively the First and Second books of Ezra. This separation became canonised with the first printed Bibles in Hebrew and Latin. Mid-16th century Reformed Protestant Bible translations produced in Geneva were

1188-463: The Babylonian Jewish community. His explanation accounts for the Samaritan and the Septuagint sharing variants not found in the Masoretic and their differences reflecting the period of their independent development as distinct local text traditions. On the basis of archaizing and pseudo-archaic forms, Cross dates the emergence of the Samaritan Pentateuch as a uniquely Samaritan textual tradition to

1254-562: The Jewish version and the Jewish commentaries suggest that the word used was Kushi , meaning 'black woman' or ' Cushite woman'. For the Samaritans, therefore, Moses had only one wife, Zipporah , throughout his whole life, while Jewish sources generally understand that Moses had two wives, Zipporah and a second, unnamed Cushite woman. Several other differences are found. The Samaritan Pentateuch uses less anthropomorphic language in descriptions of God, with intermediaries performing actions that

1320-429: The Jewish version attributes directly to God. Where the Jewish text describes Yahweh as a "man of war" (Exodus 15:3), the Samaritan has "hero of war", a phrase applied to spiritual beings. In Numbers 23:4, the Samaritan text reads "The Angel of God found Balaam ", in contrast with the Jewish text, which reads "And God met Balaam." In Genesis 50:23, the Jewish text says that Joseph 's grandchildren were born "upon

1386-516: The Jews by Josephus . Josephus himself, however, dates this event and the building of the temple at Shechem to the time of Alexander the Great . Others believe that the real schism between the peoples did not take place until Hasmonean times, when the Temple on Mount Gerizim was destroyed in 128 BCE by John Hyrcanus . The script of the Samaritan Pentateuch, its close connections at many points with

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1452-630: The Land of Canaan according to its boundaries [all] around; I praise YHWH. Book of Nehemiah The Book of Nehemiah in the Hebrew Bible , largely takes the form of a first-person memoir by Nehemiah , a Jew who is a high official at the Persian court, concerning the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile and the dedication of the city and its people to God's laws ( Torah ). Since

1518-580: The Masoretic Text. Although the text was modified to suit the Samaritan community, it still retained many unaltered Jewish readings. By the 11th or 12th century, a new Arabic translation directly based upon the Samaritan Pentateuch had appeared in Nablus . Manuscripts containing this translation are notable for their bilingual or trilingual character; the Arabic text is accompanied by the original Samaritan Hebrew in

1584-500: The Masoretic version was published. Several biblical commentaries and other theological texts based upon the Samaritan Pentateuch have been composed by members of the Samaritan community from the fourth century CE onwards. Samaritans also employ liturgical texts containing catenae extracted from their Pentateuch. Samaritans attach special importance to the Abisha Scroll used in the Samaritan synagogue of Nablus. It consists of

1650-451: The Masoretic. Several Protestants replied with a defense of the Masoretic text's authority and argued that the Samaritan text is a late and unreliable derivation from the Masoretic. The 18th-century Protestant Hebrew scholar Benjamin Kennicott 's analysis of the Samaritan Pentateuch stands as a notable exception to the general trend of early Protestant research on the text. He questioned

1716-588: The Pentateuch as the sacred text of the Samaritans before their final schism with the Judean Jewish community provides evidence that it was already widely accepted as a canonical authority in that region. Manuscripts of the Samaritan Pentateuch are written in a different script than the one used in the Masoretic Pentateuch, used by Jews. The Samaritan text is written with the Samaritan alphabet, derived from

1782-578: The Promised Land and build an altar on Mount Ebal , while the Samaritan text says that such altar, the first built by the Israelites in the Promised Land, should be built on Mount Gerizim. A few verses afterwards, both the Jewish and the Samaritan texts contain instructions for the Israelites to perform two ceremonies upon entering the Promised Land : one of blessings, to be held on Mount Gerizim, and one of cursings, to take place on Mount Ebal. In 1946,

1848-507: The Samaritan Pentateuch as having emerged from a manuscript tradition local to the Land of Israel . The Hebrew texts that form the underlying basis for the Septuagint branched out from the Israelite tradition as Israelites emigrated to Egypt and took copies of the Pentateuch with them. Cross states that the Samaritan and the Septuagint share a nearer common ancestor than either does with the Masoretic, which he suggested developed from local texts used by

1914-426: The Samaritan Pentateuch itself. Others have placed the origin of the Targum around the beginning of the third century or even later. Extant manuscripts of the Targum are "extremely difficult to use" on account of scribal errors caused by a faulty understanding of Hebrew on the part of the Targum's translators and a faulty understanding of Aramaic on the part of later copyists. Scholia of Origen 's Hexapla and

1980-399: The Samaritan Pentateuch preserves "many genuine old readings and an ancient form of the Pentateuch." Support for Kahle's thesis was bolstered by the discovery of biblical manuscripts among the Dead Sea Scrolls , which contain a text similar to the Samaritan Pentateuch. The Dead Sea Scroll texts have demonstrated that a Pentateuchal text type resembling the Samaritan Pentateuch goes back to

2046-508: The Samaritan Pentateuch useful for textual criticism . Cyril of Alexandria , Procopius of Gaza , and others spoke of certain words missing from the Hebrew Text, but present in the Samaritan Pentateuch. Eusebius wrote that the "Greek translation [of the Bible] also differs from the Hebrew, though not so much from the Samaritan" and noted that the Septuagint agrees with the Samaritan Pentateuch in

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2112-612: The Samaritan Pentateuch: The scroll shares all the major typological features with the SP, including all the major expansions of that tradition where it is extant (twelve), with the single exception of the new tenth commandment inserted in Exodus 20 from Deuteronomy 11 and 27 regarding the altar on Mount Gerizim. Frank Moore Cross has described the origin of the Samaritan Pentateuch within the context of his local texts hypothesis. He views

2178-583: The Samaritan Targum. It may have been composed for the use of a Greek-speaking Samaritan community residing in Egypt. With the displacement of Samaritan Aramaic by Arabic as the language of the Samaritan community in the centuries following the Muslim conquest of the Levant , they employed several Arabic translations of the Pentateuch. The oldest was an adaptation of Saadia Gaon 's mid-900s Tafsir Rasag or Arabic targum of

2244-468: The Samaritan version in approximately 1,900 of the 6,000 instances in which it differs from the Masoretic (Jewish) text. Many of these agreements reflect inconsequential grammatical details, but some are significant. For example, Exodus 12:40 in both the Samaritan and the Septuagint reads: Now the sojourning of the children of Israel and of their fathers which they had dwelt in the land of Canaan and in Egypt

2310-543: The Samaritans' place of worship. The Samaritan version of the Ten Commandments includes the command that an altar be built on Mount Gerizim on which all sacrifices should be offered. The Samaritan Pentateuch contains the following paragraph, which is absent from the Jewish version: And when it so happens that L ORD God brings you to the land of Canaan, which you are coming to possess, you shall set up there for you great stones and plaster them with plaster and you write on

2376-512: The Western world in 1631, proving the first example of the Samaritan alphabet and sparking an intense theological debate regarding its relative age versus the Masoretic Text. This first published copy, much later labelled as Codex B by August von Gall  [ de ] , became the source of most Western critical editions of the Samaritan Pentateuch until the latter half of the 20th century; today

2442-538: The codex is held in the Bibliothèque nationale de France . Some Pentateuchal manuscripts discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls have been identified as bearing a "pre-Samaritan" text type. Samaritans believe that God authored their Pentateuch and gave Moses the first copy along with the two tablets containing the Ten Commandments . They believe that they preserve this divinely composed text uncorrupted to

2508-502: The community in conformity with the law of Moses . After 12 years in Jerusalem , he returns to Susa but subsequently revisits Jerusalem. He finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives, and he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law. The book is set in the 5th century BC. Judah is one of several provinces within a larger satrapy (a large administrative unit) within

2574-486: The composition of the Memorial depends on the dates of Nehemiah's mission: It is commonly accepted that "Artaxerxes" was Artaxerxes I (there were two later kings of the same name), and that Nehemiah's first period in Jerusalem was therefore 445–433 BC; allowing for his return to Susa and second journey to Jerusalem, the end of the 5th century BC is therefore the earliest possible date for the Memorial. The Nehemiah Memorial

2640-464: The corruption on either side. Kennicott also states that the reading Gerizim may actually be the original reading, since that is the mountain for proclaiming blessings, and that it is very green and rich of vegetation (as opposed to Mt. Ebal, which is barren and the mountain for proclaiming curses) amongst other arguments. German scholar Wilhelm Gesenius published a study of the Samaritan Pentateuch in 1815 which biblical scholars widely embraced during

2706-506: The duplication in his Vulgate translation of the Bible into Latin from the Hebrew; and consequently all early Vulgate manuscripts present Ezra–Nehemiah as a single book, as too does the 8th century commentary of Bede , and the 9th century bibles of Alcuin and Theodulf of Orleans . However, sporadically from the 9th century onwards, Latin bibles are found that separate the Ezra and Nehemiah sections of Ezra–Nehemiah as two distinct books, then called

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2772-438: The earliest Christian and Jewish period was known as Ezra and was probably attributed to Ezra himself; according to a rabbinic tradition, however, Nehemiah was the real author but was forbidden to claim authorship because of his bad habit of disparaging others. The Nehemiah Memorial, chapters 1–7 and 11–13, may have circulated as an independent work before being combined with the Ezra material to form Ezra–Nehemiah. Determining

2838-443: The entry into the land of Israel under the leadership of Joshua , son of Nun, although contemporary scholars describe it as a composite of several fragmentary scrolls each penned between the 12th and 14th centuries CE. Other manuscripts of the Samaritan Pentateuch consist of vellum or cotton paper written upon with black ink. Numerous manuscripts of the text exist, but none written in the original Hebrew or in translation predates

2904-613: The face of the L ORD God of you. The mountain this is across the Jordan behind the way of the rising of the sun, in the land of Canaan who is dwelling in the desert before the Galgal , beside Alvin-Mara, before Sechem . Another important difference between the Samaritan Torah and the Jewish (Masoretic) Torah is in Deuteronomy 27:4. According to the Jewish text, the Israelites were told to enter

2970-643: The first and second books of Ezra; and this becomes standard in the Paris Bibles of the 13th century. It was not until 1516/17, in the first printed Rabbinic Bible of Daniel Bomberg that the separation was introduced generally in Hebrew Bibles. In later medieval Christian commentary, this book is referred to as the 'second book of Ezra', and never as the 'Book of Nehemiah"; equally citations from this book are always introduced as "Ezra says ...", and never as 'Nehemiah says ...". The combined book Ezra–Nehemiah of

3036-512: The first to introduce the name 'Book of Nehemiah' for the text formerly called the 'Second Book of Ezra'. The events take place in the second half of the 5th century BC. Listed together with the Book of Ezra as Ezra–Nehemiah , it represents the final chapter in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible. The original core of the book, the first-person memoir, may have been combined with the core of

3102-528: The formation of the Samaritan community with events which followed the Babylonian captivity . One view is that the Samaritans are the people of the Kingdom of Israel who separated from the Kingdom of Judah . Another view is that the event happened somewhere around 432 BCE, when Manasseh, the son-in-law of Sanballat, went off to found a community in Samaria, as related in the Book of Nehemiah 13:28 and Antiquities of

3168-538: The knees of Joseph", while the Samaritan text says they were born "in the days of Joseph". In about thirty-four instances, the Samaritan Pentateuch has repetitions in one section of text that was also found in other parts of the Pentateuch. Such repetitions are also implied or presupposed in the Jewish text, but not explicitly recorded in it. For example, the Samaritan text in the Book of Exodus on multiple occasions records Moses repeating to Pharaoh exactly what God had previously instructed Moses to tell him, which makes

3234-409: The middle of the 2nd century BC. Slightly later a second, and very different Greek translation was made, in the form of 1 Esdras , from which the deeds of Nehemiah are entirely absent, those sections either being omitted or re-attributed to Ezra instead; and initially early Christians reckoned this later translation as their biblical 'Book of Ezra', as had the 1st century Jewish writer Josephus . From

3300-484: The next century. He argued that the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch share a common source in a family of Hebrew manuscripts which he named the "Alexandrino-Samaritanus". In contrast to the proto-Masoretic "Judean" manuscripts carefully preserved and copied in Jerusalem , he regarded the Alexandrino-Samaritanus as having been carelessly handled by scribal copyists who popularized, simplified, and expanded

3366-428: The number of years elapsed from Noah's Flood to Abraham . Christian interest in the Samaritan Pentateuch fell into neglect during the Middle Ages . The publication of a manuscript of the Samaritan Pentateuch in 17th-century Europe reawakened interest in the text and fueled a controversy between Protestants and Roman Catholics over which Old Testament textual traditions are authoritative. Roman Catholics showed

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3432-423: The post- Maccabean age. The Samaritan Targum , composed in the Samaritan variety of Western Aramaic , is the earliest translation of the Samaritan Pentateuch. Its creation was motivated by the same need to translate the Pentateuch into the Aramaic language spoken by the community which led to the creation of Jewish Targums such as Targum Onkelos . Samaritans have traditionally ascribed the Targum to Nathanael,

3498-453: The present day. Samaritans commonly refer to their Pentateuch as ࠒࠅࠔࠈࠄ ‎ ( Qušṭā , 'Truth'). Samaritans include only the Pentateuch in their biblical canon. They do not recognize divine authorship or inspiration in any other book in the Jewish Tanakh . A Samaritan Book of Joshua partly based upon the Tanakh's Book of Joshua exists, but Samaritans regard it as a non-canonical secular historical chronicle. According to

3564-404: The second century BCE and perhaps even earlier. These discoveries have demonstrated that manuscripts bearing a "pre-Samaritan" text of at least some portions of the Pentateuch such as Exodus and Numbers circulated alongside other manuscripts with a "pre-Masoretic" text. One Dead Sea Scroll copy of the Book of Exodus, conventionally named 4QpaleoExod , shows a particularly close relation to

3630-483: The separation between words. The London Polyglot lists six thousand instances where the Samaritan Pentateuch differs from the Masoretic (Jewish) text. As different printed editions of the Samaritan Pentateuch are based upon different sets of manuscripts, the precise number varies significantly from one edition to another. Only a minority of such differences are significant. Most are simply spelling differences, usually concerning Hebrew letters of similar appearance;

3696-464: The stones all words of this law. And it becomes for you that across the Jordan you shall raise these stones, which I command you today, in mountain Gerizim. And you build there the altar to the L ORD God of you. Altar of stones. Not you shall wave on them iron. With whole stones you shall build the altar to L ORD God of you. And you bring on it ascend offerings to L ORD God of you, and you sacrifice peace offerings, and you eat there and you rejoice before

3762-409: The text look repetitious, in comparison with the Jewish text. In other occasions, the Samaritan Pentateuch has subjects , prepositions, particles , appositives , including the repetition of words and phrases within a single passage, that are absent from the Jewish text. The Samaritan Torah contains frequent agreements with the Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate . The Septuagint text agrees with

3828-404: The text. Gesenius concluded that the Samaritan text contained only four valid variants when compared to the Masoretic text. In 1915, Paul Kahle published a paper which compared passages from the Samaritan text to Pentateuchal quotations in the New Testament and pseudepigraphal texts including the Book of Jubilees , the First Book of Enoch and the Assumption of Moses . He concluded that

3894-499: The third century the Christian Old Testament in Greek supplemented the text of 1 Esdras with the older translation of Ezra–Nehemiah, naming the two books Esdras A and Esdras B respectively; and this usage is noted by the 3rd century Christian scholar Origen , who remarked that the Hebrew 'book of Ezra' might then be considered a 'double' book. Jerome , writing in the early 5th century, noted that this duplication had since been adopted by Greek and Latin Christians. Jerome himself rejected

3960-426: The underlying assumption that the Masoretic text must be more authentic simply because it has been more widely accepted as the authoritative Hebrew version of the Pentateuch: We see then that as the evidence of one text destroys the evidence of the other and as there is in fact the authority of versions to oppose to the authority of versions no certain argument or rather no argument at all can be drawn from hence to fix

4026-426: The uniquely Samaritan commandment to construct an altar on Mount Gerizim . Nearly two thousand of these textual variations agree with the Koine Greek Septuagint and some are shared with the Latin Vulgate . Throughout their history, Samaritans have used translations of the Samaritan Pentateuch into Aramaic , Greek, and Arabic , as well as liturgical and exegetical works based upon it. It first became known to

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4092-495: The use of more matres lectionis (symbols indicating vowels) in the Samaritan Pentateuch, compared with the Masoretic; different placement of words in a sentence; and the replacement of some verbal constructions with equivalent ones. A comparison between both versions shows a preference in the Samaritan version for the Hebrew preposition al where the Masoretic text has el . The most notable substantial differences between both texts are those related to Mount Gerizim ,

4158-424: The walls and to re-populate the city. He faces opposition from three powerful neighbours, the Samaritans , the Ammonites , and the Arabs , as well as the city of Ashdod , but manages to rebuild the walls. He then purifies the Jewish community by enforcing its segregation from its neighbours and enforces the laws of Moses. The single Hebrew book Ezra–Nehemiah , with title "Ezra", was translated into Greek around

4224-400: The writings of some church fathers contain references to "the Samareitikon " ( Ancient Greek : το Σαμαρειτικόν ), a work that is no longer extant. Despite earlier suggestions that it was merely a series of Greek scholia translated from the Samaritan Pentateuch, scholars now concur that it was a complete Greek translation of the Samaritan Pentateuch either directly translated from it or via

4290-489: Was familiar with the reading 'Moreh', a Hebrew word whose triliteral root suggests 'vision.' The earliest recorded assessments of the Samaritan Pentateuch are found in rabbinic literature and the writings of the early Christian Church Fathers of the first millennium. The Talmud records Eleazar ben Simeon , a Rabbinic Jew , condemning the Samaritan scribes: "You have falsified your Pentateuch... and you have not profited aught by it." Some early Christian writers found

4356-427: Was four hundred and thirty years. In the Masoretic (Jewish) text, the passage reads: Now the sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years. Passages in the Latin Vulgate also show agreements with the Samaritan version, in contrast with the Masoretic (Jewish) version. For instance, in Genesis 22:2, the Samaritan Pentateuch places the binding and near-sacrifice of Isaac in

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