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90-423: As their titles suggest, the ten prefatory poems were each dedicated to a woman Lanier was inspired by, influenced by, or hoped to attract as a patron. These dedications were used to "assert the dignity and merit of all women" by declaring the greatness of the women she wrote to. The title poem is a significantly longer work that focuses on the crucifixion of Jesus , a defence of women, and the importance of woman in

180-583: A Crown of Thorns on his head, and beat and mistreat him in Matthew 27:29–30 , Mark 15:17–19 and John 19:2–3 . The continued reliance on the use of the term king by the Judeans to press charges against Jesus is a key element of the final decision to crucify him. In John 19:12 Pilate seeks to release Jesus, but the Jews object, saying: "If thou release this man, thou art not Caesar's friend: every one that maketh himself

270-462: A sacrifice for sin . Jesus was stripped of his clothing and offered vinegar mixed with myrrh or gall (likely posca ) to drink after saying "I am thirsty". At Golgotha , he was then hung between two convicted thieves and, according to the Gospel of Mark , was crucified at the 3rd hour (9 a.m.), and died by the 9th hour of the day (at around 3:00 p.m.). During this time, the soldiers affixed

360-487: A spear to be certain that he had died, then blood and water gushed from the wound. The Bible describes seven statements that Jesus made while he was on the cross, as well as several supernatural events that occurred. Collectively referred to as the Passion , Jesus's suffering and redemptive death by crucifixion are the central aspects of Christian theology concerning the doctrines of salvation and atonement . Paul

450-416: A Thursday crucifixion based on a "double sabbath" caused by an extra Passover sabbath falling on Thursday dusk to Friday afternoon, ahead of the normal weekly Sabbath. Some have argued that Jesus was crucified on Wednesday, not Friday, on the grounds of the mention of "three days and three nights" in Matthew 12:40 before his resurrection, celebrated on Sunday. Others have countered by saying that this ignores

540-475: A class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus. Scholars generally consider the Tacitus reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate to be genuine, and of historical value as an independent Roman source. Eddy and Boyd state that it

630-511: A dream not to return to Herod, they returned to their country by a different way. An angel appears to Joseph in a dream and warns him to take Jesus and Mary into Egypt ( Matthew 2:13 ). When Herod realizes he has been outwitted by the Magi he gives orders to kill all the boys in Bethlehem and its vicinity who are two years old and under. ( Matthew 2:16 ) In the accounts of the Passion of Jesus ,

720-447: A king speaketh against Caesar", bringing the power of Caesar to the forefront of the discussion. In John 19:12 , the Jews then cry out: "Crucify him! ... We have no king but Caesar." The use of the term "King of the Jews" by the early Church after the death of Jesus was thus not without risk, for this term could have opened them to prosecution as followers of Jesus, who was accused of possible rebellion against Rome. The final use of

810-485: A literary and theological creation. Geza Vermes noted the verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the usual Hebrew, and that by the time of Jesus, this phrase had become a proverbial saying in common usage. Compared to the accounts in the other Gospels, which he describes as "theologically correct and reassuring", he considers this phrase "unexpected, disquieting and in consequence more probable". He describes it as bearing "all

900-426: A number of analytical scenarios of that topic. In the 20th century, forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angles and hand positions. His experiments support an angled suspension, and a two-beamed cross, and perhaps some form of foot support, given that in an Aufbinden form of suspension from a straight stake (as used by

990-446: A physical substance, denied that he was crucified. In response, Ignatius of Antioch insisted that Jesus was truly born and was truly crucified and wrote that those who held that Jesus only seemed to suffer only seemed to be Christians. In scholarship on the historical Jesus, the baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be the two most certain historical facts about Jesus. Various criteria are used to determine

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1080-449: A pious woman of Jerusalem who, moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha, gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead. The precise location of the crucifixion remains a matter of conjecture, but the biblical accounts indicate that it was outside the city walls of Jerusalem, accessible to passers-by and observable from some distance away. Eusebius identified its location only as being north of Mount Zion , which

1170-501: A sign to the top of the cross stating " Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews " which, according to the Gospel of John (John 19:20), was written in three languages (Hebrew, Latin, and Greek). They then divided his garments among themselves and cast lots for his seamless robe, according to the Gospel of John. The Gospel of John also states that, after Jesus's death, one soldier (named in extra-Biblical tradition as Longinus ) pierced his side with

1260-549: Is born King of the Jews?" Herod asks the "chief priests and teachers of the law", who tell him in Bethlehem of Judea. The question troubles Herod who considers the title his own, and in Matthew 2:7–8 he questions the Magi about the exact time of the Star of Bethlehem 's appearance. Herod sends the Magi to Bethlehem, telling them to notify him when they find the child. After the Magi find Jesus and present their gifts, having been warned in

1350-564: Is consistent with the two most popularly suggested sites of modern times. Calvary as an English name for the place is derived from the Latin word for skull ( calvaria ), which is used in the Vulgate translation of "place of a skull", the explanation given in all four Gospels of the Aramaic word Gûlgaltâ (transliterated into the Greek as Γολγοθᾶ (Golgotha)), which was the name of the place where Jesus

1440-466: Is crucified along with two rebels, and the sun goes dark or is obscured for three hours. Jesus calls out to God , then gives a shout and dies. The curtain of the Temple is torn in two. Matthew follows Mark, but mentions an earthquake and the resurrection of saints. Luke also follows Mark, although he describes the rebels as common criminals, one of whom defends Jesus, who in turn promises that he (Jesus) and

1530-522: Is depicted as stronger than Eve in the Bible . Lanier strengthens her defence of women by praising the women in the crucifixion story who stood behind Jesus when his disciples forsook him. For example, Lanier's focus on Pilate's wife , a woman who attempts to persuade her husband not to crucify Jesus, shows Lanier's dedication to the recognition of women in the Bible even if they are nameless. Lanier's attention to

1620-414: Is exactly the same as in Latin ( Iisus Nazarineanul Regele Iudeilor ). Eastern Orthodox Churches that use Church Slavonic in their liturgy use ІНЦІ ( INTsI , the equivalent of ΙΝΒΙ for Church Slavonic : І҆и҃съ назѡрѧни́нъ, цр҃ь і҆ꙋде́йскїй ) or the abbreviation Царь Сла́вы ( Tsar Slávy , "King of Glory"). In Spanish , the word inri denotes any insulting or mocking word or phrase; it

1710-488: Is generally agreed by biblical scholars that it was on a Friday on or near Passover ( Nisan 14), during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (who ruled AD 26–36). Various approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion, including the canonical Gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul, as well as different astronomical models. Scholars have provided estimates in the range AD 30–33, with Rainer Riesner stating that "the fourteenth of Nisan (7 April) of

1800-693: Is now "firmly established" that Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus. Another possible reference to the crucifixion ("hanging", cf. Luke 23:39 ; Galatians 3:13 ) is found in the Babylonian Talmud : On the eve of the Passover Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, "He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to apostasy . Anyone who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf." But since nothing

1890-467: Is still before Pilate at the sixth hour. Scholars have presented a number of arguments to deal with the issue, some suggesting a reconciliation, e.g., based on the use of Roman timekeeping in John, since Roman timekeeping began at midnight and this would mean being before Pilate at the 6th hour was 6 a.m., yet others have rejected the arguments. Several scholars have argued that the modern precision of marking

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1980-618: Is that the name was derived from the physical contour, which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word, i.e., the place of "a skull". While often referred to as "Mount Calvary", it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll. The traditional site, inside what is now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in the Christian Quarter of the Old City , has been attested since

2070-511: Is the earliest surviving source (outside of the Gospels ) to document Jesus's crucifixion. Scholars have used Paul's chronology as evidence for the date of the crucifixion. However, the earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels . In the synoptic gospels, Jesus predicts his death in three separate places. All four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus's arrest , initial trial at

2160-578: Is the term "King" (regardless of Jews or Israel) that is sensitive, for it implies possible rebellion against the Roman Empire . In the Gospel of Mark the distinction between King of the Jews and King of Israel is made consciously, setting apart the two uses of the term by the Jews and the gentiles. The initialism INRI represents the Latin inscription IESVS NAZARENVS REX IVDÆORVM ( Iesus Nazarenus, Rex Iudaeorum ), which in English translates to "Jesus

2250-603: Is usually found in the fixed expression para más/mayor inri (literally "for more/greater insult"), which idiomatically means "to add insult to injury" or "to make matters worse". Its origin is sometimes made clearer by capitalisation para más INRI . The initials INRI have been reinterpreted with other expansions ( backronyms ). In an 1825 book on Freemasonry , Marcello Reghellini de Schio alleged that Rosicrucians gave "INRI" alchemical meanings: Later writers have attributed these to Freemasonry, Hermeticism , or neo-paganism . Aleister Crowley 's The Temple of Solomon

2340-594: The Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s. Another relevant archaeological find, which also dates to the 1st century AD, is an unidentified heel bone with a spike discovered in a Jerusalem gravesite, now held by the Israel Antiquities Authority and displayed in the Israel Museum . There is no consensus regarding the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus, although it

2430-626: The Historical Jesus did believe he might die. Geza Vermes also views the crucifixion as a historical event, but provides his own explanation and background for it. Bart Ehrman states that Jesus portrayed himself as the header of the future Kingdom and that a number of criteria- the criterion of multiple attestation and criterion of dissimilarity - establishes the crucifixion of Jesus as an enemy of state. Although almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary, in 1968, an archeological discovery just northeast of Jerusalem uncovered

2520-556: The IHS monogram and a cross to symbolize the crucifixion. The placing of the nails in the hands, or the wrists is also uncertain. Some theories suggest that the Greek word cheir ( χείρ ) for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails through Destot's space (between the capitate and lunate bones ) without fracturing any bones. Another theory suggests that

2610-558: The Nazis in the Dachau concentration camp during World War II ), death comes rather quickly. The Gospels describe various last words that Jesus said while on the cross, as follows: The only words of Jesus on the cross mentioned in the Mark and Matthew accounts, this is a quotation of Psalm 22 . Since other verses of the same Psalm are cited in the crucifixion accounts, some commentators consider it

2700-591: The New Testament epistles , and later attested to by other ancient sources . Scholars nearly universally accept the historicity of Jesus's crucifixion, although there is no consensus on the details. According to the canonical gospels, Jesus was arrested and tried by the Sanhedrin , and then sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged , and finally crucified by the Romans . The Gospel of John portrays his death as

2790-525: The Testimonium . Early in the second century another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made by Tacitus , generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians. Writing in The Annals (c. AD 116), Tacitus described the persecution of Christians by Nero and stated ( Annals 15.44 ) that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus: Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on

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2880-511: The 1st century AD, the time when the gospel accounts of the death of Jesus were written, likened it to the letter T (the Greek letter tau , which had the numeric value of 300), and to the position assumed by Moses in Exodus 17:11–12 . Justin Martyr (100–165) explicitly says the cross of Christ was of two-beam shape: "That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of

2970-446: The 3rd century AD. The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be neither Jewish nor Christian. The letter refers to the retributions that followed the unjust treatment of three wise men: Socrates , Pythagoras , and "the wise king" of the Jews. Some scholars see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the " king of the Jews " is about the crucifixion of Jesus, while others place less value in

3060-531: The 4th century. A second site (commonly referred to as Gordon's Calvary ), located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called the Garden Tomb , has been promoted since the 19th century. The Gospels describe various women at the crucifixion , some of whom are named. According to Mark, many women were present, among them Mary Magdalene , Mary, mother of James and Mary of Clopas , commonly known as "

3150-428: The 6th to the 9th hour, and the temple veil being torn from top to bottom. The Synoptic Gospels also mention several witnesses, including a centurion , and several women who watched from a distance, two of whom were present during the burial . The Gospel of Luke is the only gospel to omit the detail of the sour wine mix that was offered to Jesus on a reed, while only Mark and John describe Joseph actually taking

3240-556: The Apostles says that Jesus remained with the apostles for 40 days, whereas the account in the Gospel of Luke makes no clear distinction between the events of Easter Sunday and the Ascension. Most biblical scholars agree that the author of Luke also wrote the Acts of the Apostles as a follow-up volume to the Gospel of Luke account, and the two works must be considered as a whole. In Mark, Jesus

3330-521: The Biblical crucifixion narrative. Suzanne Woods observes that the poem is "meditating and expanding on the events from the female point of view," which was a revolutionary retelling of the crucifixion at the time. Lanier's defense of women shifts the blame of sin from Eve and onto Adam saying, "But surely Adam cannot be excus'd, / Her fault, though great, yet he was most too blame" The poem goes on to explain that Adam should have avoided temptation since he

3420-407: The Gospel of John just says that Jesus "bears" his own cross. Luke's gospel also describes an interaction between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him, quoting Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. For behold, the days are coming when they will say, 'Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and

3510-515: The Gospel of John, the Roman soldiers did not break Jesus's legs, as they did to the two crucified convicts (breaking the legs hastened the onset of death), as Jesus was dead already. Each gospel has its own account of Jesus's last words, seven statements altogether. In the Synoptic Gospels , various supernatural events accompany the crucifixion, including darkness , an earthquake, the tearing of

3600-450: The Gospel of Luke as the penitent thief and the impenitent thief . The Gospel of John mentions the soldiers and "the disciple whom Jesus loved ", who is with the women. The Gospels also tell of the arrival, after the death of Jesus, of Joseph of Arimathea (in the four Gospels) and of Nicodemus (only in John). Whereas most Christians believe the gibbet on which Jesus was executed

3690-449: The Gospel of Mark, he endured the torment of crucifixion from the third hour (between approximately 9 a.m. and noon), until his death at the ninth hour, corresponding to about 3 p.m. The soldiers affixed a sign above his head stating "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" which, according to the Gospel of John , was in three languages (Hebrew, Latin, and Greek), and then divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe. According to

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3780-432: The Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near the radius and ulna of the forearm . Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails. Another issue of debate has been the use of a hypopodium as a standing platform to support the feet, given that the hands may not have been able to support the weight. In the 17th century Rasmus Bartholin considered

3870-500: The Innocents . Towards the end of the accounts of all four canonical Gospels , in the narrative of the Passion of Jesus , the title "King of the Jews" leads to charges against Jesus that result in his crucifixion . The initialism INRI ( Latin : Iesus Nazarenus, Rex Iudaeorum ) represents the Latin inscription (in John 19:19 and Matthew 27:37 ), which in English translates to "Jesus

3960-526: The Jewish idiom by which a "day and night" may refer to any part of a 24-hour period, that the expression in Matthew is idiomatic, not a statement that Jesus was 72 hours in the tomb, and that the many references to a resurrection on the third day do not require three literal nights. In Mark 15:25 crucifixion takes place at the third hour (9 a.m. ) and Jesus's death at the ninth hour (3 p.m.). In John 19:14 Jesus

4050-475: The Jews told Pilate: "Do not write King of the Jews" but instead write that Jesus had merely claimed that title, but Pilate wrote it anyway. Pilate's response to the protest is recorded by John: "What I have written, I have written." After the trial by Pilate and after the flagellation of Christ episode, the soldiers mock Jesus as the King of Jews by putting a purple robe (that signifies royal status) on him, place

4140-702: The King includes a discussion of Augoeides , supposedly written by "Frater P." of the A∴A∴ : Latin Intra Nobis Regnum deI literally means "Inside Us the Kingdom of god". Leopold Bloom , the nominally Catholic, ethnically Jewish protagonist of James Joyce 's Ulysses , remembers his wife Molly Bloom interpreting INRI as "Iron Nails Ran In". The same meaning is given by a character in Ed McBain 's 1975 novel Doors . Most Ulysses translations preserve "INRI" and make

4230-489: The Nazarene, King of the Jews" ( John 19:19 ). John 19:20 states that this was written in three languages – Aramaic-Hebrew, Latin, and Greek – and was put on the cross of Jesus . The Greek version of the initialism reads ΙΝΒΙ, representing Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ βασιλεύς τῶν Ἰουδαίων ( Iēsoûs ho Nazōraîos ho basileús tôn Ioudaíōn ). Devotional enthusiasm greeted the discovery by Pedro González de Mendoza in 1492 of what

4320-508: The Nazarene, King of the Jews", and John 19:20 states that this was written in three languages— Jewish tongue , Latin, and Hellenic (ΙΝΒΙ = Ιησούς Ναζωραίος Βασιλεύς Ιουδαίων)—during the crucifixion of Jesus. The title "King of the Jews" is only used in the New Testament by gentiles , namely by the Magi, Pontius Pilate , and the Roman soldiers. In contrast, the Jews in the New Testament use

4410-552: The New Testament, e.g., in John 19:3 , this is written as Basileus ton Ioudaion ( βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων ). Both uses of the title lead to dramatic results in the New Testament accounts. In the account of the nativity of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew , the Biblical Magi who come from the east call Jesus the " King of the Jews ", causing Herod the Great to order the Massacre of

4500-456: The Sanhedrin and final trial at Pilate's court , where Jesus is flogged, condemned to death, is led to the place of crucifixion initially carrying his cross before Roman soldiers induce Simon of Cyrene to carry it, and then Jesus is crucified, entombed , and resurrected from the dead. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel's narrative. Scholars note that

4590-414: The Sanhedrin 43a reference to Jesus can be confirmed not only from the reference itself, but from the context that surrounds it. Sanhedrin 43a relates that Yeshu had been condemned to death by the royal government of Judaea – this lineage was stripped of all legal authority upon Herod the Great 's ascension to the throne in 37 BC, meaning the execution had to have taken place close to 40 years before Jesus

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4680-515: The Three Marys ". The Gospel of Matthew also mentions several women being present, among them Mary Magdalene, Mary, mother of James and the mother of Zebedee's children. Although a group of women is mentioned in Luke, neither is named. The Gospel of John speaks of women present, among them the mother of Jesus , Mary Magdalene and Mary of Clopas. Aside from these women, the three Synoptic Gospels speak of

4770-412: The answer is affirmative. In John 18:34 , he hints that the king accusation did not originate with Pilate but with "others" and, in John 18:36 , he states: "My kingdom is not of this world". However, Jesus does not directly deny being the King of the Jews. In the New Testament, Pilate writes "Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews" as a sign to be affixed to the cross of Jesus. John 19:21 states that

4860-661: The appearances of a genuine cry". Raymond Brown likewise comments that he finds "no persuasive argument against attributing to the Jesus of Mark/Matt the literal sentiment of feeling forsaken expressed in the Psalm quote". Jesus, King of the Jews In the New Testament , Jesus is referred to as the King of the Jews , both at the beginning of his life and at the end. In the Koine Hellenic of

4950-417: The body down off the cross. There are several details that are only mentioned in a single gospel account. For instance, only the Gospel of Matthew mentions an earthquake, resurrected saints who went to the city and that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb, while Mark is the only one to state the time of the crucifixion (the third hour, or 9 a.m. – although it was probably as late as noon) and

5040-449: The body of a crucified man dated to the 1st century, which provided good confirmatory evidence that crucifixions occurred during the Roman period roughly according to the manner in which the crucifixion of Jesus is described in the gospels. The crucified man was identified as Yehohanan ben Hagkol and probably died about AD 70, around the time of the Jewish revolt against Rome. The analyses at

5130-470: The book has achieved recognition thanks to carefully edited editions like that of Suzanne Woods and journal articles including "Remembering Aemilia Lanyer" by Kate Chedgzoy. Crucifixion of Jesus The crucifixion of Jesus was the death of Jesus by being nailed to a cross . It occurred in 1st-century Judaea , most likely in AD 30 or AD 33. It is described in the four canonical gospels , referred to in

5220-469: The breasts that never nursed!' Then they will begin to say to the mountains, 'Fall on us,' and to the hills, 'Cover us.' For if they do these things when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?" The Gospel of Luke has Jesus address these women as "daughters of Jerusalem", thus distinguishing them from the women whom the same gospel describes as "the women who had followed him from Galilee" and who were present at his crucifixion. Traditionally,

5310-462: The centurion's report of Jesus's death. The Gospel of Luke's unique contributions to the narrative include Jesus's words to the women who were mourning, one criminal's rebuke of the other, the reaction of the multitudes who left "beating their breasts", and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sabbath. John is also the only one to refer to the request that the legs be broken and

5400-511: The criminal will be together in paradise. Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in the face of his crucifixion. John includes several of the same elements as those found in Mark, though they are treated differently. The comparison below is based on the New International Version . An early non-Christian reference to the crucifixion of Jesus is likely to be Mara Bar-Serapion's letter to his son, written some time after AD 73 but before

5490-417: The cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb." Irenaeus , who died around the end of the 2nd century, speaks of the cross as having "five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in

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5580-467: The cross ... Most modern scholars agree that while this Josephus passage (called the Testimonium Flavianum ) includes some later interpolations , it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate. James Dunn states that there is "broad consensus" among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in

5670-439: The cross, and we will believe in him." In the New Testament, the "King of the Jews" title is used only by the gentiles, by the Magi, Pontius Pilate, and Roman soldiers. In contrast, the Jews in the New Testament prefer the designation "King of Israel" as used reverentially by Jesus' Jewish followers in John 1:49 and John 12:13 , and mockingly by the Jewish leaders in Matthew 27:42 and Mark 15:32 . From Pilate's perspective, it

5760-580: The crucifixion. In Western Christianity , before the Renaissance usually four nails would be depicted, with the feet side by side. After the Renaissance most depictions use three nails, with one foot placed on the other. Nails are almost always depicted in art, although Romans sometimes just tied the victims to the cross. The tradition also carries to Christian emblems , e.g. the Jesuits use three nails under

5850-432: The discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In Matthew 27:11 , Mark 15:2 , and Luke 23:3 Jesus responds to Pilate, "you have said so" when asked if Jesus is the King of the Jews and says nothing further. This answer is traditionally interpreted as an affirmative. Some scholars describe it as ambiguous and enigmatic. Other scholars say it was calculated not to anger Pilate while allowing the gospel reader to understand that

5940-472: The focus of a significant body of critical scholarship and achieved a presence in the mainstream of Renaissance poetry." Although the reception to Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum was poor, the work has come to claim an important place in the history of English literature. Most scholars, researchers, and biographers consider Lanier's collection of poems as a groundbreaking text for feminism, literary tradition, and poetry overall. Though not widely studied for centuries,

6030-523: The former term meant an upright stake or pole, but in Koine Greek it was used also to mean a cross. The Latin word crux was also applied to objects other than a cross. Early Christian writers who speak of the shape of the particular gibbet on which Jesus died invariably describe it as having a cross-beam. For instance, the Epistle of Barnabas , which was certainly earlier than 135, and may have been of

6120-544: The head of Jesus. The initialism INRI (as opposed to the full inscription) was in use by the 10th century ( Gero Cross , Cologne, ca. 970). In Eastern Christianity , both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris use the Greek letters ΙΝΒΙ , based on the Greek version of the inscription Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ βασιλεύς τῶν Ἰουδαίων . Some representations change

6210-447: The historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it. For example, both E. P. Sanders and Paula Fredriksen support the historicity of the crucifixion, but contend that Jesus did not foretell his own crucifixion and that his prediction of the crucifixion is a "church creation". On the other hand, Michael Patrick Barber argues that the Historical Jesus predicted his violent death. Tucker Ferda argues that

6300-557: The historicity of the elements of the New Testamentical narratives, and help to establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event. The criterion of embarrassment argues that Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader. The criterion of multiple attestation is the confirmation by more than one source, including multiple non-Christian sources, and the criterion of coherence argues that it fits with other historical elements. Although scholars agree on

6390-542: The letter, given the ambiguity in the reference. In the Antiquities of the Jews (written about AD 93) Jewish historian Josephus stated ( Ant 18.3 ) that Jesus was crucified by Pilate, writing that: Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, ... He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles ;... And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to

6480-421: The middle, on which [last] the person rests who is fixed by the nails." The assumption of the use of a two-beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest three nails while others suggest four nails. Throughout history, larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized, at times as high as 14 nails. These variations are also present in the artistic depictions of

6570-654: The path that Jesus took is called Via Dolorosa ( Latin for "Way of Grief" or "Way of Suffering") and is a street in the Old City of Jerusalem . It is marked by nine of the fourteen Stations of the Cross . It passes the Ecce Homo Church and the last five stations are inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . There is no reference to a woman named Veronica in the Gospels, but sources such as Acta Sanctorum describe her as

6660-445: The presence of others: "the chief priests, with the scribes and elders", two crucified criminals, to Jesus's right and left, "the soldiers", "the centurion and those who were with him, keeping watch over Jesus", passers-by, "bystanders", "the crowds that had assembled for this spectacle", and "his acquaintances". The two criminals are described as λῃσταί (variously translated as robbers, rebels or thieves) and further discussed in

6750-423: The reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening. After arriving at Golgotha , Jesus was offered wine mixed with myrrh or gall to drink. Both the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Matthew record that he refused this. He was then crucified and hanged between two convicts. According to some translations of the original Greek, the convicts may have been bandits or Jewish rebels. According to

6840-402: The sanctuary's veil and the resurrection of saints (in the Gospel of Matthew). Following Jesus's death, his body was removed from the cross by Joseph of Arimathea and buried in a rock-hewn tomb , with Nicodemus assisting. The three Synoptic gospels also describe Simon of Cyrene bearing the cross, a crowd of people mocking Jesus along with the other two crucified men, darkness from

6930-634: The soldier's subsequent piercing of Jesus's side (as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy), as well as that Nicodemus assisted Joseph with burial. According to the First Epistle to the Corinthians (1 Corinthians 15:4), Jesus was raised from the dead ("on the third day" counting the day of crucifixion as the first) and according to the canonical gospels, appeared to his disciples on different occasions before ascending to heaven. The account given in Acts of

7020-426: The time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available, and time was often approximated to the closest three-hour period. The three Synoptic Gospels refer to a man called Simon of Cyrene whom the Roman soldiers order to carry the cross after Jesus initially carries it but then collapses, while

7110-417: The title King of the Jews is used on three occasions. In the first such episode, all four Gospels state that the title was used for Jesus when he was interviewed by Pilate and that his crucifixion was based on that charge, as in Matthew 27:11 , Mark 15:2 , Luke 23:3 and John 18:33 . The use of the terms king and kingdom and the role of the Jews in using the term king to accuse Jesus are central to

7200-508: The title "King of Israel" or the Hebrew word Messiah , which can also mean king. Although the phrase "King of the Jews" is used in most English translations , it has also been translated "King of the Judeans" (see Ioudaioi ). In the account of the nativity of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew, the Biblical Magi go to King Herod in Jerusalem and (in Matthew 2:2 ) ask him: "Where is he that

7290-463: The title only appears in Luke 23:36–37 . Here, after Jesus has carried the cross to Calvary and has been nailed to the cross, the soldiers look up on him on the cross, mock him, offer him vinegar and say: "If thou art the King of the Jews, save thyself." In the parallel account in Matthew 27:42 , the Jewish priests mock Jesus as "King of Israel", saying: "He is the King of Israel; let him now come down from

7380-514: The title to "ΙΝΒΚ," ὁ βασιλεύς τοῦ κόσμου ( ho Basileùs toû kósmou , "The King of the World"), or to ὁ βασιλεύς τῆς Δόξης ( ho Basileùs tês Dóxēs , "The King of Glory"), not implying that this was really what was written but reflecting the tradition that icons depict the spiritual reality rather than the physical reality. The Romanian Orthodox Church uses INRI, since abbreviation in Romanian

7470-451: The women in the poem characterizes her unique retelling of the biblical story. There is no indication of any recognition of Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum in Lanier's lifetime. It did not gain Lanier a fortune as her attempt to attract a patron suggests she wanted. The collection appears to have had an underwhelming reception due to the nontraditional nature of the poems. The British Library explains

7560-594: The writing by stating, "Lanier uses the language of piety and respect to mount a radical, self-assured 'defence of Women'. The feminist style that scholars and researchers like those at the British Library attribute to Lanier is probably one of the reasons “Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum" was not well received. Lanier's Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum was, for the most part, forgotten for centuries. One scholar says, "["Salve Deus Rex Judeaorum" was] consigned to oblivion for nearly four centuries, Lanyer has only in recent decades become

7650-434: The year 30 AD is, apparently in the opinion of the majority of contemporary scholars as well, far and away the most likely date of the crucifixion of Jesus." Another preferred date among scholars is Friday, 3 April, AD 33. The consensus of scholarship is that the New Testament accounts represent a crucifixion occurring on a Friday, but a Thursday or Wednesday crucifixion have also been proposed. Some scholars explain

7740-456: Was acclaimed as the actual tablet , said to have been brought to Rome by Saint Helena , mother of Emperor Constantine . In Western Christianity , most crucifixes and many depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus include a plaque or parchment placed above his head, called a titulus , or title, bearing only the Latin letters INRI , occasionally carved directly into the cross and usually just above

7830-531: Was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover. Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree that the above 2nd-century passage is likely to be about Jesus, Peter Schäfer stating that there can be no doubt that this narrative of the execution in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth. Robert Van Voorst states that

7920-419: Was crucified. The text does not indicate why it was so designated, but several theories have been put forward. One is that as a place of public execution, Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of abandoned victims (which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions, but not Roman). Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites). A third

8010-529: Was even born. Muslims maintain that Jesus was not crucified and that those who thought they had killed him had mistakenly killed Judas Iscariot , Simon of Cyrene , or someone else in his place. They hold this belief based on various interpretations of Quran   4:157–158 , which states: "they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them [or it appeared so unto them], ... Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself". Some early Christian Gnostic sects, believing Jesus did not have

8100-461: Was the traditional two-beamed cross, the Jehovah's Witnesses hold the view that a single upright stake was used. The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous. The Koine Greek terms used in the New Testament are stauros ( σταυρός ) and xylon ( ξύλον ). The latter means wood (a live tree, timber or an object constructed of wood); in earlier forms of Greek,

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