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101-516: The Salary Grab Act , officially known as the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Expenses Appropriation Act , was passed by the United States Congress on March 3, 1873, and sparked a firestorm of controversy among members of the government, the general public, and the press. President Ulysses S. Grant signed the act the day before his inauguration for a second term to double the salary of
202-622: A Democratic majority in the United States House of Representatives which began one of the most competitive two-party periods in American history. Before legislation for an across the board increase in pay for government officials, officials in and out of government had complained that their salaries were insufficient to meet the expenses involved with their office and the high costs of living in Washington, D.C. The president's salary, at $ 25,000
303-556: A Stalwart Republican from Massachusetts. The so-called "Salary Grab Act" first attracted attention on February 7, 1873, put forth by Butler, from Massachusetts, who on that day stated that he had been directed by the Committee on the Judiciary to submit a bill lending itself to the subject of salaries in the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government, along with a report in writing from Butler, who stated, "I desire to say that
404-620: A U.S. citizen for seven years for the House and nine years for the Senate, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. The Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution and first met in 1789, replacing the Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice since
505-478: A federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of state government and national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers . Furthermore, there were checks and balances within
606-556: A business enterprise, covering its operating expenses with freight and passenger revenues while providing profits for investors and interest payments to the US government for the borrowed capital (at the federal rate based upon the U.S. government bond rates), and ultimately retiring its debt to the U.S. government. Opponents of the Pacific Railroad Acts felt the construction and its routing were being developed without regard for creating
707-471: A cash profit of only $ 23,366,319.81, a financial misrepresentation since these same directors were the recipients of the undisclosed $ 20,563,010 Union Pacific share of the total profits. Maury Klein, in his wide-ranging analysis of the scandal boils down the issue: "Did the builders of the road defraud the government? And did they attempt to gain influence in Congress through bribery? The evidence suggested that
808-507: A pity the President did not veto the salary steal". President Grant reasoned that blocking the bill would have rendered all three branches of government underfunded, requiring the new 43rd Congress to conduct a special session to start the process all over again. Due to the large public outcry, and in an attempt to deflect criticism, a few of the Senators and Representatives returned their bonuses to
909-444: A powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman . Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as
1010-457: A probe that led to the censure of Oakes Ames and James Brooks , a Democrat from New York. During the 1872 campaign, Grant's running mate Henry Wilson initially denied involvement. However, in the February 1873 Senate investigation, Wilson admitted involvement and provided a complicated explanation claiming he had paid for stock in his wife's name, and with her money but had never taken possession of
1111-473: A profitable company. Following a disagreement with Ames, Henry Simpson McComb leaked compromising letters to The New York Sun , a reformist newspaper highly critical of incumbent President Ulysses S. Grant and his administration. On September 4, 1872, the Sun broke the story. The newspaper reported that Crédit Mobilier had received $ 72 million in contracts for building a railroad worth only $ 53 million. After
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#17328554253721212-514: A revised constitution with a two-chamber or bicameral Congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise , was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created
1313-401: A six-year term, with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of the U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress be at least 25 years old for the House and at least 30 years old for the U.S. Senate, be
1414-517: A state's at-large representation to the federal government by senators. Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent. The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration . Congress
1515-557: A viable and profitable transportation enterprise. They believed the whole project was a bare-faced fraud by some capitalists to build a "railroad to nowhere" and to make tremendous profits doing so, while getting the United States government to bear the costs. George Francis Train and Thomas C. Durant , the vice president of the Union Pacific Rail Road , formed Crédit Mobilier of America in 1864. Crédit Mobilier of America
1616-474: A year, had not increased since George Washington was president, while the purchasing power of the dollar had decreased. Congressional salaries had not been increased since 1852. While the government provided a house and a domestic staff for the president, Grant, like all presidents before him, paid for his own living expenses. Before passage of the act, salaries for members of Congress and Cabinet members were $ 5,000 and $ 8,000 respectively, significantly more than
1717-663: Is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia , the current seat of the federal government. The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies . On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created
1818-440: Is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from
1919-486: Is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more women and minorities . While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change,
2020-433: Is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress: Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body ... Congress
2121-586: Is quite uncommon. Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while
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#17328554253722222-665: Is the legislature of the federal government of the United States . It is bicameral , composed of a lower body, the United States House of Representatives , and an upper body, the United States Senate . It meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a governor 's appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 100 senators and 435 representatives. The vice president of
2323-529: The tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility". In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60% of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress" including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed
2424-540: The Board of Education . Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act . Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as
2525-527: The Commerce Clause , the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v. Maryland , have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section Eight. Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C. , the federal district and national capital, and the U.S. territories of Guam , American Samoa , Puerto Rico ,
2626-463: The Congress of the Confederation , a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed
2727-599: The Conservative Coalition . Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II . Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited
2828-513: The Northern Mariana Islands . These six members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent Congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of
2929-477: The U.S. Virgin Islands , and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures. Cr%C3%A9dit Mobilier scandal The Crédit Mobilier scandal ( French pronunciation: [kʁedi mɔbilje] )
3030-510: The market value , which was much higher due to its superb (but fraudulent) profits and exclusive contract with the Union Pacific Railroad. It also declared substantial quarterly dividends on its stock. Those allowed to purchase shares at par value could reap enormous capital gains simply by offering these discounted shares on the market, knowing that they would be purchased at a higher price by investors desiring to own stock in such
3131-445: The second-wave feminism movement , when activists moved into electoral politics. Beginning in the 1970s, donors and political action committees like EMILY's List began recruiting, training and funding women candidates. Watershed political moments like the confirmation of Clarence Thomas and the 2016 presidential election created momentum for women candidates, resulting in the Year of
Salary Grab Act - Misplaced Pages Continue
3232-473: The "Salary Grab Act", associated its promotion to the recent Crédit Mobilier scandal , and accused the governing Republican majority in Congress of perpetuating an atmosphere of corruption. Most of the criticism, especially from Liberal reformers, was aimed at Republicans. Along with the Crédit Mobilier scandal, the so-called Salary Grab Act or "Salary steal" fueled a widespread notion that the party in power
3333-479: The "biggest risk to the U.S. economy" because of its brinksmanship , "down-to-the-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts", resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5% in October 2013. In 2009, Congress authorized another delegate for
3434-439: The 1960s opened the possibility for Black, Asian American, Latina and other non-white women candidates to run for Congress. Racially polarized voting, racial stereotypes and lack of institutional support still prevent women of color from reaching Congress as easily as white people . Senate elections, which require victories in statewide electorates, have been particularly difficult for women of color. Carol Moseley Braun became
3535-575: The 19th century, members of Congress are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties , the Democratic Party or the Republican Party , and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. In the case of the latter, the lack of affiliation with a political party does not mean that such members are unable to caucus with members of the political parties. Members can also switch parties at any time, although this
3636-790: The 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates". From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $ 12.5 million to $ 120 million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special-interest PACs including ones for lawyers , electricians , and real estate brokers . From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs. From 1970 to 2009,
3737-512: The American response as a "police action". According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times." In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion [of Congress's war power] began after World War II." Disagreement about
3838-490: The California border. Nor were there any branch lines running either north or south of the proposed route that would have been able to feed their traffic to a new transcontinental railway. As a result, private investors refused to invest. In spite of this, the entire railroad scheme was proposed as a " going concern " – a financially viable enterprise that relied on "below-market" financing and then could continue to function as
3939-458: The Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause . Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States". There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage
4040-594: The Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing
4141-411: The House by a 102–95 vote, and the Senate by a 36–27 vote, whereafter President Grant signed the bill into law on March 3, 1873, the final day of the 42nd Congress. In little time the proposed salary increase in congressional salaries became a controversial issue in all branches of government as well as with much of the general public and the press. The newspapers immediately characterized the pay raise as
Salary Grab Act - Misplaced Pages Continue
4242-486: The House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam . In 1978, an additional delegate for American Samoa were added. In
4343-448: The House initiates revenue -raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 118th Congress , began on January 3, 2023, and will end on January 3, 2025. Since
4444-477: The House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills . Congress has an important role in national defense , including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces , and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated
4545-598: The Jeffersonian Republican Party and began the era of the First Party System . In 1800, Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties. John Marshall , 4th chief justice of the Supreme Court , empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving
4646-628: The Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. The Civil War , which lasted from 1861 to 1865, which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states' rights . The Gilded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled
4747-485: The Uniform Congressional Redistricting Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts . It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using the U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for
4848-456: The Union Pacific and Crédit Mobilier, the contract's terms, conditions, and price were offered and accepted through the actions of the same corporate officers and directors, operating on both sides of the contract. The underlying fraud of a common and unified ownership of two companies that shared principal officers and directors was not revealed for years. The principal means of the scheme was
4949-563: The Union Pacific. The scandal negatively affected the careers of many politicians and nearly bankrupted Union Pacific. For decades partisan newspapers used the scandal to create widespread public distrust of Republicans, Congress, and the federal government during the Gilded Age . The scandal's origins dated to 1864, when the Union Pacific Railroad was chartered by Congress and the associated corporation Crédit Mobilier of America
5050-476: The United States , as President of the Senate, has a vote in the Senate only when there is a tie. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members . Congress convenes for a two-year term , commencing every other January. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day . The members of the House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and
5151-633: The United States government Treasury Department, while others donated it to colleges or charities. However, the criticism persisted, and the Republicans lost ninety-six seats in the House, including Butler. The huge loss resulted in the Democratic party returning to prominence for the first time since before the Civil War. As a result, the 1874 election initiated one of the most competitive two-party periods in American history, lasting more than twenty years. During
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#17328554253725252-538: The White House a little more in favor of the executive branch", according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush , have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators, including the American Bar Association , have described this practice as against
5353-500: The Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they cannot vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. On January 6, 2021, the Congress gathered to confirm the election of Joe Biden, when supporters of the outgoing president Donald Trump attacked the building . The session of Congress ended prematurely, and Congress representatives evacuated. Trump supporters occupied Congress until D.C police evacuated
5454-540: The Woman and the election of members of The Squad , respectively. Women of color faced additional challenges that made their ascension to Congress even more difficult. Jim Crow laws , voter suppression and other forms of structural racism made it virtually impossible for women of color to reach Congress prior to 1965. The passage of the Voting Rights Act that year , and the elimination of race-based immigration laws in
5555-535: The adoption of the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the Congress has started and ended at noon on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it
5656-452: The answer to the first was no, and to the second a qualified yes." In 1867, Crédit Mobilier replaced Thomas Durant with Oakes Ames . Ames, a member of Congress, distributed cash bribes and discounted shares of Crédit Mobilier stock to fellow congressmen and other politicians in exchange for votes and actions favorable to the Union Pacific. Ames offered to members of Congress shares in Crédit Mobilier at its discounted par value rather than
5757-639: The area. The event was the first time since the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812 that the United States Congress was forcefully occupied. Various social and structural barriers have prevented women from gaining seats in Congress. In the early 20th century, women's domestic roles and the inability to vote forestalled opportunities to run for and hold public office. The two party system and
5858-404: The beginning of the 42nd Congress, almost two full years earlier. This meant that all members of Congress would receive a lump sum payment of roughly $ 4,000 for "services rendered" when the session came to a close. The House, on 24 February 1873, assembled to conduct the routine procedure of working out a legislative appropriations bill. Both Houses acted immediately and passed the conference bill;
5959-417: The budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm." Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary. The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among
6060-493: The committee. The amendment specified that the annual salary for Presidents, which at the time had remained unchanged since the presidency of George Washington, would double to $ 50,000, while the annual salaries of Supreme Court Justices and Cabinet members would increase to $ 10,000, and the annual salaries of civil servants would also increase. Moreover, members of Congress would receive a pay increase from $ 5,000 to $ 7,500 annually. The congressional increase would be retroactive to
6161-586: The early years as political parties became pronounced. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights , the anti-federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–1791 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton ; it soon became the Democratic-Republican Party or
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#17328554253726262-475: The electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment reduced the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability. The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards
6363-425: The exclusive power of removal , allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and
6464-577: The executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather initiated by Congress. President Roosevelt pushed his agenda in Congress by detailing Executive Branch staff to friendly Senate committees (a practice that ended with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946). The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed
6565-463: The extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights , fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court , and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in
6666-551: The fear of communism during the Second Red Scare and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both chambers of Congress from 1961 to 1980, and retained a consistent majority in the House from 1955 to 1994. Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had
6767-412: The first woman of color to reach the Senate in 1993. The second, Mazie Hirono , won in 2013. In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female President of the Senate , which came with her role as the first female Vice President of the United States . Article One of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress
6868-428: The government with a professional staff. Thus any member who employed administrators or personal clerks had to pay them directly out of his own pocket. Any member who was not financially well-off and needed clerical assistance was faced with a financial hardship, as Washington was a very expensive place in which to live. To meet the cost of living many government officials were forced to take on other forms of employment on
6969-402: The internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties , civic associations , interest groups , and the mass media . The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and
7070-486: The lack of term limits favored incumbent white men, making the widow's succession – in which a woman temporarily took over a seat vacated by the death of her husband – the most common path to Congress for white women. Women candidates began making substantial inroads in the later 20th century, due in part to new political support mechanisms and public awareness of their underrepresentation in Congress. Recruitment and financial support for women candidates were rare until
7171-430: The late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions". Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as
7272-488: The law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Broad interpretations of this clause and of
7373-441: The legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789. Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s–1820s), the partisan era (1830s–1900s), the committee era (1910s–1960s), and the contemporary era (1970–present). Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in
7474-446: The method of indirect billing. The Union Pacific presented genuine and accurate invoices to the U.S. government as evidence of actual construction costs billed to them by Crédit Mobilier of America for payment. Any audit of the Union Pacific invoices to the government would have revealed no evidence of fraud or profiteering, because the fraud took place one level deeper, on the invoices from Crédit Mobilier to Union Pacific. Union Pacific
7575-462: The opening of the next Congress, 20 January 1874, House members repealed the Appropriation Act, sustaining only the salary increases for the President and Supreme Court Justices, while all others abandoned any hope of a continuing salary increase. United States Congress Minority (49) Minority (212) Vacant (3) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The United States Congress
7676-439: The opponents of the railroad project from the start. The Union Pacific paid $ 94,650,287 to Crédit Mobilier via the project, while Crédit Mobilier incurred operating costs of only $ 50,720,959. Thus, the deal generated $ 43,929,328 (equivalent to over $ 724.9M in 2020) in profits for Crédit Mobilier, counting the Union Pacific shares and bonds that Crédit Mobilier bought and paid itself. The Crédit Mobilier directors reported this as
7777-580: The other branches of government. In the Plame affair , critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping , although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has
7878-401: The president and those of Supreme Court Justices. The proposal for a salary increase was fueled by what was considered low pay for members in government, while the salary for the president was the same as it had been for George Washington . The bill subsequently included a 50 percent salary increase for the president and for members of Congress, retroactive to the beginning of their term, which
7979-591: The process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 , the Mexican–American War , the Spanish–American War , World War I , and World War II , although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 , President Truman described
8080-696: The project, as opposed to the operating phase, to generate profit. Because the conspirators believed they could not expect conventional profits from the operation of the railroad, they created the sham company so they could charge the U.S. government extortionate fees and expenses during the construction phase. In simplified terms, the scheme worked as follows: The directors of the Union Pacific also engaged in stock manipulation circumventing requirements that they receive full payment for stock issued at par by instead paying Crédit Mobilier in bank checks, which Crédit Mobilier then used to purchase Union Pacific stock. In every major construction contract drawn up between
8181-506: The railroad with a loan of $ 16,000 to $ 48,000 per mile of track, variable according to location, for a total of more than $ 60 million in all, and a land grant of 20,000,000 acres (8,100,000 ha), worth $ 50 to $ 100 million. The offer initially attracted no subscribers for additional financing, as the conditions were financially daunting. The railroad would have to be built for 1,750 miles (2,820 km) through desert and mountains, incurring extremely high freight costs for supplies. There
8282-703: The ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress and calls for reform; sometimes reformers said lobbyists corrupted politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon . By the beginning of the 20th century, party structures and leadership emerged as key organizers of Senate proceedings. A system of seniority, in which long-time members of Congress gained more and more power, encouraged politicians of both parties to seek long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until
8383-495: The reforms of the 1970s. Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment , ratified on April 8, 1913. Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to
8484-583: The report is not drawn by myself, but I present it by order of the committee, and I concur in its statements." The bill was received and read aloud twice, and submitted. On February 10, Butler moved that the Committee on Appropriations be directed to include the salary increase in the Miscellaneous Appropriation Bill, for the committee's consideration. Butler also moved for a suspension of the rules in order to allow that this motion be entertained by
8585-440: The revelations, the Union Pacific and other investors were left nearly bankrupt . In 1872, the (Republican) House of Representatives submitted the names of nine politicians to the (Republican) Senate for investigation: All of those named were Republicans except Bayard, a Democrat who was largely dropped from the investigation after he wrote a letter disavowing any knowledge. Ultimately, Congress investigated 13 of its members in
8686-413: The several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, the Senate and
8787-471: The shares. According to Wilson, when his wife (and later he himself) had concerns about the transaction, the transaction was reversed. Wilson's wife had died in 1870, so senators had to rely on Wilson's word and that of Ames, whose account corroborated Wilson's. The Senate accepted Wilson's explanation, and took no action against him, but his reputation for integrity was somewhat damaged because of his initial denial. Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts
8888-545: The side, often resuming their former professions, usually between Congressional sessions. The idea of increasing the salaries for government officials with legislation that became known as the "Salary Grab" was conceived in the final days of the 42nd Congress , during the normal course of congressional business, and was first introduced on February 7, 1873, in the House Judiciary Committee , chaired by Benjamin Butler ,
8989-731: The spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters". The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights , due process , and equal protection under
9090-547: The wages for the average American. Members of Congress were also supposed to pay for their own residences while in Washington, where rents had increased as much as 25% since the Civil War . When President Grant abolished the franking privilege , a considerable yearly sum for government officials who frequently corresponded, their expenses increased further. Professional needs also prompted the effort to increase salaries for government officials. Members of Congress were not provided by
9191-535: Was a "driving force in American government" and a "remarkably resilient institution". Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices ; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination." One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and
9292-422: Was a deliberate façade. Train and Durant aimed to present to both the government and to the public the appearance that an independent corporate enterprise had been impartially chosen as the principal contractor and construction management firm for the project. In fact, Crédit Mobilier was created to shield the company's shareholders and management from the common charge that they were using the construction phase of
9393-457: Was a two-part fraud conducted from 1864 to 1867 by the Union Pacific Railroad and the Crédit Mobilier of America construction company in the building of the eastern portion of the first transcontinental railroad from the Missouri River to Utah Territory. The story was broken by The New York Sun during the 1872 campaign of Ulysses S. Grant . A new company, Crédit Mobilier of America,
9494-419: Was accepting for payment genuine Crédit Mobilier invoices (based on fraudulent accounting) and was applying only an overhead expense for management and administration. If the Union Pacific's corporate officers had openly undertaken the management and construction of the railroad, this scheme to make windfall profits immediately from charges made during construction would have been exposed to public scrutiny by
9595-408: Was also implicated. Dawes had purchased $ 1,000 in stock and had received a dividend. Dawes later had doubts about the propriety of the stock purchase and cancelled it. Ames returned the purchase price to Dawes with interest and Dawes returned the dividend to Ames. Dawes received $ 100 in interest on his returned purchase price, but he was not further implicated. A Department of Justice investigation
9696-404: Was also made with Aaron F. Perry as chief counsel. During the investigation, the government found that the company had given shares to more than 30 politicians from both parties, including James A. Garfield , Colfax, Patterson, and Wilson. No charges were filed against any of the participants in the scandal. James A. Garfield denied the charges and was elected president in 1880. This scheme
9797-420: Was created by Union Pacific executives to actually build the line, but at inflated construction costs. Though the railroad cost only $ 50 million to build, Crédit Mobilier billed $ 94 million and Union Pacific executives pocketed the excess $ 44 million. Part of the excess cash and $ 9 million in discounted stock was then used to bribe several Washington politicians for laws, funding, and regulatory rulings favorable to
9898-517: Was established. This company had no relation to the major French bank Crédit Mobilier . In the Pacific Railroad Acts of 1864–68, Congress authorized and chartered the Union Pacific Railroad and provided $ 100 million (equivalent to over $ 1.6B in 2020) in capital investment to complete a transcontinental line west from the Missouri River to the Pacific coast . The federal government offered to assist
9999-455: Was hopelessly corrupt. However, the connection of the Liberals with the "salary grab" was easily open to criticism. Four Liberal senators and one representative supported the salary increases, and never returned their back pay. Elihu Washburne , Minister to France, who was a Republican himself and former ally of Grant, writing from Paris, characterized Congress as "simply a gang of thieves...what
10100-417: Was the high risk of armed conflict with hostile tribes of Native Americans , who occupied many territories in the interior, and no probable early business to pay dividends. There was no existing demand for railroad freight or passenger traffic for virtually the entire proposed route. Since no towns or cities of any size yet existed on the western prairies, there was no commercial activity between Nebraska and
10201-616: Was the most highly contested provision in the bill. Public outcry led Congress to rescind the congressional salary increase. As a protest against the act, the Ohio General Assembly ratified what later became the Twenty-seventh Amendment . The controversy surrounding the bill was one of the contributing factors to the Republicans losing many seats in the 1874–75 United States House of Representatives elections , resulting in
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