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72-685: The SQNR formula is derived from the general signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) formula: where: As SQNR applies to quantized signals, the formulae for SQNR refer to discrete-time digital signals . Instead of m ( t ) {\displaystyle m(t)} , the digitized signal x ( n ) {\displaystyle x(n)} will be used. For N {\displaystyle N} quantization steps, each sample, x {\displaystyle x} requires ν = log 2 ⁡ N {\displaystyle \nu =\log _{2}N} bits. The probability distribution function (PDF) represents

144-694: A broad range of more specialized fields of engineering , each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics , applied science , and types of application. See glossary of engineering . The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium , meaning "cleverness". The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET ) has defined "engineering" as: The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate

216-407: A commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals , specialty chemicals , petroleum refining , microfabrication , fermentation , and biomolecule production . Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering

288-533: A count of 2,000. There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining , mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier. The foundations of electrical engineering in

360-420: A demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools . Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until John Wilkinson invented his boring machine , which is considered the first machine tool . Other machine tools included the screw cutting lathe , milling machine , turret lathe and the metal planer . Precision machining techniques were developed in

432-540: A given channel, which depends on its bandwidth and SNR. This relationship is described by the Shannon–Hartley theorem , which is a fundamental law of information theory. SNR can be calculated using different formulas depending on how the signal and noise are measured and defined. The most common way to express SNR is in decibels, which is a logarithmic scale that makes it easier to compare large or small values. Other definitions of SNR may use different factors or bases for

504-451: A million times stronger. When the signal is constant or periodic and the noise is random, it is possible to enhance the SNR by averaging the measurements. In this case the noise goes down as the square root of the number of averaged samples. When a measurement is digitized, the number of bits used to represent the measurement determines the maximum possible signal-to-noise ratio. This is because

576-445: A perfect input signal. If the input signal is already noisy (as is usually the case), the signal's noise may be larger than the quantization noise. Real analog-to-digital converters also have other sources of noise that further decrease the SNR compared to the theoretical maximum from the idealized quantization noise, including the intentional addition of dither . Although noise levels in a digital system can be expressed using SNR, it

648-462: A quantity proportional to power, as shown below: The concepts of signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range are closely related. Dynamic range measures the ratio between the strongest un- distorted signal on a channel and the minimum discernible signal, which for most purposes is the noise level. SNR measures the ratio between an arbitrary signal level (not necessarily the most powerful signal possible) and noise. Measuring signal-to-noise ratios requires

720-650: A random variable ( S ) to random noise N is: S N R = E [ S 2 ] E [ N 2 ] , {\displaystyle \mathrm {SNR} ={\frac {\mathrm {E} [S^{2}]}{\mathrm {E} [N^{2}]}}\,,} where E refers to the expected value , which in this case is the mean square of N . If the signal is simply a constant value of s , this equation simplifies to: S N R = s 2 E [ N 2 ] . {\displaystyle \mathrm {SNR} ={\frac {s^{2}}{\mathrm {E} [N^{2}]}}\,.} If

792-400: A result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers. If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build

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864-411: A technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety , marketability, productivity, and serviceability . By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for

936-618: A testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Pharos of Alexandria , were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East . The wedge and

1008-909: A useful purpose. Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs. Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering , acoustical engineering , corrosion engineering , instrumentation and control , aerospace , automotive , computer , electronic , information engineering , petroleum , environmental , systems , audio , software , architectural , agricultural , biosystems , biomedical , geological , textile , industrial , materials , and nuclear engineering . These and other branches of engineering are represented in

1080-399: A very wide dynamic range , signals are often expressed using the logarithmic decibel scale. Based upon the definition of decibel, signal and noise may be expressed in decibels (dB) as and In a similar manner, SNR may be expressed in decibels as Using the definition of SNR Using the quotient rule for logarithms Substituting the definitions of SNR, signal, and noise in decibels into

1152-622: A way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of military engineering . The pyramids in ancient Egypt , ziggurats of Mesopotamia , the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts , Via Appia and Colosseum, Teotihuacán , and the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur , among many others, stand as

1224-513: Is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on

1296-564: Is a measure used in science and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise . SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power , often expressed in decibels . A ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB) indicates more signal than noise. SNR is an important parameter that affects the performance and quality of systems that process or transmit signals, such as communication systems , audio systems , radar systems , imaging systems , and data acquisition systems. A high SNR means that

1368-403: Is a uniformly distributed random signal with a peak-to-peak amplitude of one quantization level, making the amplitude ratio 2 /1. The formula is then: This relationship is the origin of statements like " 16-bit audio has a dynamic range of 96 dB". Each extra quantization bit increases the dynamic range by roughly 6 dB. Assuming a full-scale sine wave signal (that is, the quantizer

1440-730: Is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth. This discipline applies geological sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines such as civil engineering , environmental engineering , and mining engineering . Geological engineers are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments, such as rock excavations (e.g. tunnels ), building foundation consolidation, slope and fill stabilization, landslide risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, groundwater remediation , mining excavations, and natural resource exploration. One who practices engineering

1512-497: Is called an engineer , and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer , Chartered Engineer , Incorporated Engineer , Ingenieur , European Engineer , or Designated Engineering Representative . In the engineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As

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1584-717: Is designed such that it has the same minimum and maximum values as the input signal), the quantization noise approximates a sawtooth wave with peak-to-peak amplitude of one quantization level and uniform distribution. In this case, the SNR is approximately Science and engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science , mathematics , and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure , machinery , vehicles , electronics , materials , and energy systems. The discipline of engineering encompasses

1656-433: Is employed to characterize sensitivity of imaging systems; see Signal-to-noise ratio (imaging) . Related measures are the " contrast ratio " and the " contrast-to-noise ratio ". Channel signal-to-noise ratio is given by where W is the bandwidth and k a {\displaystyle k_{a}} is modulation index Output signal-to-noise ratio (of AM receiver) is given by Channel signal-to-noise ratio

1728-399: Is given by Output signal-to-noise ratio is given by All real measurements are disturbed by noise. This includes electronic noise , but can also include external events that affect the measured phenomenon — wind, vibrations, the gravitational attraction of the moon, variations of temperature, variations of humidity, etc., depending on what is measured and of the sensitivity of the device. It

1800-407: Is more common to use E b /N o , the energy per bit per noise power spectral density. The modulation error ratio (MER) is a measure of the SNR in a digitally modulated signal. For n -bit integers with equal distance between quantization levels ( uniform quantization ) the dynamic range (DR) is also determined. Assuming a uniform distribution of input signal values, the quantization noise

1872-411: Is often possible to reduce the noise by controlling the environment. Internal electronic noise of measurement systems can be reduced through the use of low-noise amplifiers . When the characteristics of the noise are known and are different from the signal, it is possible to use a filter to reduce the noise. For example, a lock-in amplifier can extract a narrow bandwidth signal from broadband noise

1944-407: Is only an approximation since E ⁡ [ X 2 ] = σ 2 + μ 2 {\displaystyle \operatorname {E} \left[X^{2}\right]=\sigma ^{2}+\mu ^{2}} . It is commonly used in image processing , where the SNR of an image is usually calculated as the ratio of the mean pixel value to the standard deviation of

2016-428: Is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace / aircraft products, weapon systems , transportation products, engines , compressors , powertrains , kinematic chains , vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing , robotics, turbines, audio equipments, and mechatronics . Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for

2088-664: Is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including structural engineering , environmental engineering , and surveying . It is traditionally considered to be separate from military engineering . Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as broadcast engineering , electrical circuits , generators , motors , electromagnetic / electromechanical devices, electronic devices , electronic circuits , optical fibers , optoelectronic devices , computer systems, telecommunications , instrumentation , control systems , and electronics . Mechanical engineering

2160-412: Is usually not included while measuring power or energy of a signal. This may cause some confusion among readers, but the resistance factor is not significant for typical operations performed in signal processing, or for computing power ratios. For most cases, the power of a signal would be considered to be simply An alternative definition of SNR is as the reciprocal of the coefficient of variation , i.e.,

2232-831: The Neo-Assyrian period (911–609) BC. The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza . The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep . As one of the officials of the Pharaoh , Djosèr , he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid ) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. The earliest practical water-powered machines,

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2304-542: The Newcomen steam engine . Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of ' hydraulic lime ' (a form of mortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern cement , because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to

2376-451: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium ( c.  1250 ), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention." Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as

2448-517: The inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times. The wheel , along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC. The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East , where it was used in a simple balance scale , and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology . The lever was also used in

2520-553: The shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia c.  3000 BC , and then in ancient Egyptian technology c.  2000 BC . The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC, and ancient Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BC). The screw , the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during

2592-624: The water wheel and watermill , first appeared in the Persian Empire , in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC. Kush developed the Sakia during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy. Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation. Sappers were employed to build causeways during military campaigns. Kushite ancestors built speos during

2664-412: The 14th century when an engine'er (literally, one who builds or operates a siege engine ) referred to "a constructor of military engines". In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i.e. , a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult ). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g. ,

2736-426: The 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta , Michael Faraday , Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell's equations ) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics . The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated

2808-593: The 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council . New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies , environmental science , engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering . Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of aircraft , satellites and rockets . Marine engineering covers

2880-576: The 9th century. In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable automata / robots . He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine , where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns. Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights , clockmakers , instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology. A standard reference for

2952-531: The Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing , two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are widely used in fields such as robotics and automotive engineering . Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hunnic armies employed military machines and inventions such as artillery which

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3024-478: The Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC. Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism , an early known mechanical analog computer , and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes , are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as

3096-660: The SQNR is desired in terms of decibels (dB) , a useful approximation to SQNR is: where ν {\displaystyle \nu } is the number of bits in a quantized sample, and P x ν {\displaystyle P_{x^{\nu }}} is the signal power calculated above. Note that for each bit added to a sample, the SQNR goes up by approximately 6 dB ( 20 × l o g 10 ( 2 ) {\displaystyle 20\times log_{10}(2)} ). Signal-to-noise ratio Signal-to-noise ratio ( SNR or S/N )

3168-638: The United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S. Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers , there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I . Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments. Engineering

3240-446: The above equation results in an important formula for calculating the signal to noise ratio in decibels, when the signal and noise are also in decibels: In the above formula, P is measured in units of power, such as watts (W) or milliwatts (mW), and the signal-to-noise ratio is a pure number. However, when the signal and noise are measured in volts (V) or amperes (A), which are measures of amplitude, they must first be squared to obtain

3312-409: The aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering ) awarded in

3384-571: The design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of watercraft and stationary structures like oil platforms and ports . Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software . Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering ), software design , and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering. Geological engineering

3456-407: The development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes. Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to

3528-418: The development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty. Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century. Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to

3600-519: The distribution of values in x {\displaystyle x} and can be denoted as f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} . The maximum magnitude value of any x {\displaystyle x} is denoted by x m a x {\displaystyle x_{max}} . As SQNR, like SNR, is a ratio of signal power to some noise power, it can be calculated as: The signal power is: The quantization noise power can be expressed as: Giving: When

3672-421: The first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training. The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for blast furnaces lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in blast furnaces , which enabled

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3744-409: The first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century. The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with

3816-514: The invention of Portland cement . Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the barometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by Otto von Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis Papin , who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated

3888-419: The logarithm, depending on the context and application. One definition of signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of the power of a signal (meaningful input) to the power of background noise (meaningless or unwanted input): where P is average power. Both signal and noise power must be measured at the same or equivalent points in a system, and within the same system bandwidth . The signal-to-noise ratio of

3960-401: The minimum possible noise level is the error caused by the quantization of the signal, sometimes called quantization noise . This noise level is non-linear and signal-dependent; different calculations exist for different signal models. Quantization noise is modeled as an analog error signal summed with the signal before quantization ("additive noise"). This theoretical maximum SNR assumes

4032-422: The noise has expected value of zero, as is common, the denominator is its variance , the square of its standard deviation σ N . The signal and the noise must be measured the same way, for example as voltages across the same impedance . Their root mean squares can alternatively be used according to: where A is root mean square (RMS) amplitude (for example, RMS voltage). Because many signals have

4104-504: The noise level to 1 (0 dB) and measuring how far the signal 'stands out'. In physics, the average power of an AC signal is defined as the average value of voltage times current; for resistive (non- reactive ) circuits, where voltage and current are in phase, this is equivalent to the product of the rms voltage and current: But in signal processing and communication, one usually assumes that R = 1 Ω {\displaystyle R=1\Omega } so that factor

4176-434: The noise standard deviation σ {\displaystyle \sigma } does not change between the two states. The Rose criterion (named after Albert Rose ) states that an SNR of at least 5 is needed to be able to distinguish image features with certainty. An SNR less than 5 means less than 100% certainty in identifying image details. Yet another alternative, very specific, and distinct definition of SNR

4248-402: The pixel values over a given neighborhood. Sometimes SNR is defined as the square of the alternative definition above, in which case it is equivalent to the more common definition : This definition is closely related to the sensitivity index or d ' , when assuming that the signal has two states separated by signal amplitude μ {\displaystyle \mu } , and

4320-474: The power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible. New steel making processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century. One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel , who built railroads, dockyards and steamships. The Industrial Revolution created

4392-455: The ratio of mean to standard deviation of a signal or measurement: where μ {\displaystyle \mu } is the signal mean or expected value and σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is the standard deviation of the noise, or an estimate thereof. Notice that such an alternative definition is only useful for variables that are always non-negative (such as photon counts and luminance ), and it

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4464-434: The rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution. John Smeaton

4536-426: The same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property. Engineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc. The term engineering is derived from the word engineer , which itself dates back to

4608-433: The selection of a representative or reference signal. In audio engineering , the reference signal is usually a sine wave at a standardized nominal or alignment level , such as 1 kHz at +4 dBu (1.228 V RMS ). SNR is usually taken to indicate an average signal-to-noise ratio, as it is possible that instantaneous signal-to-noise ratios will be considerably different. The concept can be understood as normalizing

4680-442: The signal is clear and easy to detect or interpret, while a low SNR means that the signal is corrupted or obscured by noise and may be difficult to distinguish or recover. SNR can be improved by various methods, such as increasing the signal strength, reducing the noise level, filtering out unwanted noise, or using error correction techniques. SNR also determines the maximum possible amount of data that can be transmitted reliably over

4752-464: The state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years. The science of classical mechanics , sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering. With

4824-414: The transition from charcoal to coke . These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical. The puddling process , patented by Henry Cort in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. Hot blast , patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine,

4896-576: The use of a piston, which he published in 1707. Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a coffee percolator . Samuel Morland , a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend". It employed both vacuum and pressure. Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen , who built

4968-623: Was a steam jack driven by a steam turbine , described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt . The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD, and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world by the early 11th century, both of which were fundamental to the growth of the cotton industry . The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny , which

5040-513: Was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer , a programmable musical instrument , was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices , in

5112-642: Was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC, the trireme , the ballista and the catapult . In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed. The earliest practical wind-powered machines, the windmill and wind pump , first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age , in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD. The earliest practical steam-powered machine

5184-505: Was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist . Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency. Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels. Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to

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