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107-718: The responsibilities of the council are defined by the constitution as: This National Security Council is mandated by Article 176 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran to be presided over by the president of the country. The Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei selects the secretary of the Supreme council. The decisions of the Council are effective after the confirmation by the Supreme Leader . Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and

214-494: A considerable number of religious buildings were erected. At least ten madrasas are known by name. Two Friday mosques seem to have existed in Seljuk times: the old one was renovated and a new one, located outside of the town area, was built in 528/1133–34 by the order of Sultan Togrel II ( Persian: سلطان طغرل دوم ). Qom must have expanded during this period, but precise reasons for its prosperity are not known. A family of Ḥosaynid Alids

321-514: A good number of community leaders and there is also mention of one prominent female ʿAlid besides Fātimah bint Mūsā. These Alids descended from the Imams and were supported by pensions. Apart from the Shia mainstream, other Shia sects existed in the city and one can also assume the presence of Sunnies . Ḏemmis, or followers of other revealed religions ( Jews , Christians , and Zoroastrians ) must have lived in

428-615: A joint summit between the members of the provisional government and the Superieur Council of Revolution with the presence of Khomeini in Qom , it was decided that an Assembly for the Final Review of the Constitution was to be established for a final evaluation of the constitution of Iran. The assembly members were voted on in the summer of 1979. Out of the "72 delegates whose election

535-663: A ruined and depopulated city throughout the Ilkhanid period. Besides, the fact that the Ilkhanid vizier Šams-al-Din Jovayni took refuge in the Fātimah bint Mūsā sanctuary in 683/1284, indicates that the city must have experienced at least a modest comeback. The city walls were probably rebuilt and, moreover, four graves of saints are known to have been constructed between 720/1301 and 1365. Additionally, some fine tiles are known from this period. Nothing

642-491: A sum of 5 million dirhams. The names of those involved have survived. The move of a Hadith transmitter from Kufa to Qom, which took place probably in the middle of the 9th century, indicates the increased importance of Qom as a center of Shia learning. At about the same time another military attack on the city occurred in 254/868, when Mofleḥ, the Turkish officer of the caliph Al-Mostaʿin, executed some of its inhabitants because of

749-584: Is "the fundamental unit of society" within which women will recover their "precious function of motherhood". The Army and Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps are responsible not only for guarding the country but for "fulfilling the ideological mission of jihad in God's path". The judicial system will be based on Islamic justice. The executive branch will implement "the laws and ordinances of Islam". "Mass communications media" will diffuse Islamic culture and refrain from anti-Islamic "qualities". The "central axis" of

856-519: Is 140 km (87 mi) to the south of Tehran , and on the banks of the Qom River . Qom is considered holy in Shi'a Islam , as it is the site of the shrine of Fatimah bint Musa , sister of Imam Ali ibn Musa Rida (Persian: Imam Reza ; 789–816). The city is the largest center for Shi'a scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage, with around twenty million pilgrims visiting

963-535: Is allowed, "provided arms are not carried" and the assemblies "are not detrimental to the fundamental principles of Islam". Qom Qom ( Persian : قم ; [ɢom] ) is a city in the Central District of Qom County , Qom province, Iran , serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is the seventh largest metropolis and also the seventh largest city in Iran. The city

1070-499: Is barely a century old. There are nearly 300,000 clerics in Iran's seminaries. The Fordow uranium enrichment facility is located 20 miles north east of Qom. In January 2012 the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) announced that Iran had started producing uranium enriched up to 20% for medical purposes and that material "remains under the agency's containment and surveillance." Iranian authorities state

1177-523: Is in the southwest of Qom. Qom has a hot desert climate bordering a cold desert climate based on Köppen climate classification ( BWh bordering on BWk ) and has an arid climate based on Trewartha climate classification ( BW ), with low annual rainfall due to remoteness from the sea and being situated in the vicinity of the subtropical anticyclone aloft. Summer weather is very hot and essentially rainless, whilst in winter weather can vary from warm to – when Siberian air masses are driven south across

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1284-430: Is known about animal husbandry in the region, but the considerable number of fifty-one mills existed, of which a fifth was in decay. Legends speak of mineral deposits and mines of silver , iron , gold and lead , while Kurds seem to have produced salt from a lake nearby (see Qom Lake ). The production of chairs, textiles, and saddle equipment indicates craftsmanship. The city's taxation has to be distinguished between

1391-409: Is known about the irrigation systems of the town, but nearby a dam was built in the Ilkhanid period and the local administration must have functioned again, as the name of a judge shows. The agricultural situation is described as flourishing with a variety of cultivated plants and a good supply of water, and legends indicate the use of deposits of mineral resources. Information exists concerning taxes for

1498-508: Is not an Islamic notion. Finally, Iran has kept the solar calendar and celebrates the new year on March 21. During the occultation of the Twelfth Imam , the Ummah (Islamic community) must be led by a just and pious, courageous, resourceful faqih (Islamic jurist) knowledgeable about affairs of the day, in accordance with Article 107. "The official religion of Iran is Islam "—specifically of

1605-480: Is now over fifty, and the number of research institutes and libraries somewhere near two hundred and fifty. Its theological center and the Fatima Masumeh Shrine are prominent features of Qom. Another very popular religious site of pilgrimage formerly outside the city of Qom but now more of a suburb is called Jamkaran . Qom's proximity to Tehran has allowed the clerical establishment easy access to monitor

1712-766: Is the Solar Hijri calendar , which combines a year zero from the Islamic Hijri calendar , and organization of months according to the Iranian solar calendar. "The official weekly holiday is Friday. Both the solar and lunar Islamic calendars are recognized". The official flag of Iran is composed of green, white and red colours with the special emblem of the Islamic Republic, together with the motto (Allahu Akbar). Women will enjoy equal legal, "human, political, economic, social, and cultural rights", when "in conformity with Islamic criteria". "The dignity, life, property, rights," etc. "of

1819-489: Is the supreme law of Iran . It was adopted by referendum on 2 and 3 December 1979, and went into force replacing the Constitution of 1906 . It has been amended once, on 28 July 1989. The constitution was originally made up of 175 articles in 12 chapters, but amended in 1989 to 177 articles in 14 chapters. It has been called a hybrid regime of theocratic and democratic elements. Articles One and Two vest sovereignty in God, and Article Six "mandates popular elections for

1926-622: The Abadan refinery on the Persian Gulf . Qom gained additional prosperity when oil was discovered at Sarajeh near the city in 1956 and a large refinery was built between Qom and Tehran. Some researchers have considered the word "Kom" (in the ancient name of Komidan (Komiran)) to mean "city" and believe that there is a lexical connection between the words "Komiran", "Shemiran (near Tehran)", "Tehran", "Chamran (in Saveh areas)" and "Iran", and they considered

2033-524: The Alborz Mountains by blocking over Europe – frigid. An example of the latter situation was in January 2008 when minima fell to −23 °C or −9.4 °F on the 15th, whilst earlier similar situations occurred in January 1964 and to a lesser extent January 1950, January 1972 and December 1972. The highest recorded temperature was 47 °C (117 °F) on 11 July 2010 and the lowest recorded temperature

2140-705: The Ayatollah Khomeini led his opposition to the Pahlavi dynasty from Qom. On 19 February 2020, the Iranian Students News Agency reported that the first two cases of the COVID-19 pandemic in Iran were detected in Qom. At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 957,496 in 241,827 households. The following census in 2011 counted 1,074,036 people in 299,752 households. The 2016 census measured

2247-512: The French Fifth Republic with separation of powers among the executive, judicial and parliamentary branches. An outline was presented to Khomeini in January 1979 and he brought it with him when he returned to Iran. After being reworked by two different commissions, it was published on 14 June 1979 by the provisional government of Mehdi Bazargan as the official preliminary draft of the constitution. The preliminary draft differed from

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2354-459: The Pahlavi regime was likely to fall and that the leader of the revolution taking his regime down was Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini . Work began on a constitution for the new Islamic state that would follow the revolution. A preliminary draft was (according to Asghar Schirazi) begun in Paris by one Hassan Habibi while Khomeini was still in exile there. It was structured like the 1958 constitution of

2461-511: The Parliament and Council of Guardians , and eliminated the post of Prime Minister . The amendment concerning qualifications for the Supreme Leader is thought to have been introduced and approved because no marja' had given strong support for Khomeini's policies. The amendments were approved by the voting public on 28 July 1989 (in same election as Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani was elected to

2568-764: The Twelver Shi'ism in Usul al-Dîn and of the Ja'farî school in fiqh , -- "and this principle will remain eternally immutable." "Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian Iranians are the only recognized religious minorities", who, within the limits of the law, are free to perform their religious rites and ceremonies, and to act according to their own canon in matters of personal affairs and religious education. "The government ... and all Muslims are duty-bound to treat non-Muslims" with "Islamic justice and equity", provided those non-Muslims "refrain from engaging in conspiracy or activity against Islam and

2675-532: The 4th and 1st millennium BC. While nothing is known about the area from Elamite , Medes , and Achaemenid times, there are significant archeological remains from the Seleucid and Parthian epochs, of which the ruins of Khurha (about 70 kilometres or 43 miles southwest of Qom) are the most famous and important remnants. Their dating and function have instigated long and controversial debates and interpretations, for they have been interpreted and explained variously as

2782-429: The Constitution as well as to all other laws and regulations… as evidence "Sharia laws and principles" ("Islamic criteria" in the article above) "must be considered as a main source of the legal order" in the constitution. Sharia is referred to numerous times in the constitution but often by another terms (as it is above): The preamble or introduction of the constitution touches on (its version of) events leading up to

2889-459: The Constitution", called for changes in the draft: "a ceremonial president, supremacy of parliament, independent judiciary, individual rights, and equal rights for women, proposed making the universal declaration of Human Rights part of the constitution, more decentralization, and `democratization` of the army". This led "Khomeini to spur the Islamic groups to counterattack', telling his supporters that

2996-482: The Islamic Republic of Iran". The "Official language and writing script (of Iran)... is Persian . In addition "regional and tribal languages" are allowed "in the press and mass media, as well as for teaching of their literature in schools" "Since the language of the Qur'an and Islamic texts ... is Arabic", Arabic "must be taught ... in school from elementary grades until the end of high school." The official calendar of Iran

3103-617: The Islamic jurists (fuqaha') and the Council of Guardians . Olivier Roy points out that traditionally sharia was the "sole foundation for the judicial norm", not constitutions which were secular. Khomeini himself specifically affirmed the preeminence of the Islamic state over sharia in January 1989 when he publicly dressed down the future Supreme Leader Ali Khamanei, pronouncing the opposite. On key questions Iranian law remains fairly un-Islamic. The constitution grants equal rights among men and women (article 20). The discretionary law of repudiation

3210-514: The Islamic revolution led by Grand Ayatollah Khomeini, affirmed by the referendum of Farvardin 9 and 10. The Islamic Republic is a system based on the belief in: The duty of the Islamic Republic is to direct all of its resources to a number of goals. These goals were designed to emphasize positive liberty . Some of the goals are put in context of the requirements of Islam. For example: All laws and regulations "absolutely and generally" must be based on Islamic criteria. Enforcing this will be

3317-628: The Leader must possess the "scholarship, as required for performing the functions of mufti in different fields of fiqh", i.e. only a high level cleric of Islamic law may be the Leader. Article 113 states the Leader is the highest public official in Islamic Republic of Iran. The Head of Judiciary, who has considerable power (Establishing the organizational structure of the Judiciary, Drafting judiciary bills for parliament, hiring, dismissing, transferring judges) must be an Islamic legal cleric ( mujtahid ); as must be

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3424-582: The Preamble (Guardianship of the Jurist) states On the basis of continuous Guardianship and Leadership (Imamate) the Constitution provides for leadership under all conditions, (by a person) recognized by the people as lender, so that there shall be security against deviation by various organizations ("The course of affairs is in the hands of those who know God and who are trustworthy in matters having to do with what he permits and forbids") Article 109, stipulates that

3531-617: The President and the Prime Minister were retained for the executive branch of government from the French model.) A different version of events comes from Shaul Bakhash, who writes that Khomeini and his supporters accepted the preliminary draft but were provoked by an "opposition determined to establish a secular state". A secularist group calling itself a "Seminar on the People's Expectations from

3638-721: The President of the Supreme Court, the Attorney General (Article 162), and six out of the twelve members of the Guardian Council who are appointed by the Leader (Article 91) and have the power to veto legislation from the parliament that they believe does not conform to sharia (Article 96). Hassan Vakilian cites Article 4: civil, penal financial, economic, administrative, cultural, military, political, and other laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria. This principle applies absolutely and generally to all articles of

3745-535: The Revolutionary Council, without consulting them, to have the constitution finalized by a much smaller body—an `Assembly of Experts` with 70 members, which alarmed them because with much larger constituencies and fewer candidates "it would be easier to rig the elections". If Khomeini's network succeeded in doing so, "the likelihood of dissenting voices in the Assembly could be reduced to almost nothing". During

3852-591: The Saffavid dynasty. By 1503, Qom became one of the important centers of theology in relation to Shia Islam and became a significant religious pilgrimage site and pivot. The city suffered heavy damage again during the Afghan invasions, resulting in consequent severe economic hardships. Qom further sustained damage during the reign of Nader Shah and the conflicts between the two households of Zandieh and Qajariyeh in order to gain power over Iran. Finally in 1793 Qom came under

3959-507: The Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) are at the top of the foreign policy decisions process. Supreme National Security Council formulates the country's nuclear policy. The nuclear policies formulated by the council would become effective if they are confirmed by the Supreme Leader. The secretary of the Supreme council was the chief nuclear negotiator of Iran until 5 September 2013 when responsibility for nuclear talks

4066-498: The affairs and decisions of state. Many Grand Ayatollahs possess offices in both Tehran and Qom; many people simply commute between the two cities as they are only 156 kilometres or 97 miles apart. Southeast of Qom is the ancient city of Kashan . Directly south of Qom lie the towns of Delijan , Mahallat , Naraq, Pardisan City , Kahak, and Jasb . The surrounding area to the west of Qom is populated by Tafresh , Saveh , and Ashtian and Jafarieh. Arak city (Industrial Capital of Iran)

4173-522: The agent (wakil) responsible for the pensions of the Alids. The first Friday mosque in Qom was built in 878–79 on the site of a fire temple, although there are also confusing reports concerning a possible earlier Friday mosque. In 881–82 Qom was occupied by the Turkish military leader Edgu Tegin (Arabic: Yadkutakin b. Asātakin or Aḏkutakin), who tried to collect the tax arrears for seven years which partially ruined

4280-469: The armies of the Mongol generals, Jebe and Sübedei, in 621/1224 and left the city in ruins for at least twenty years, when the sources (Jovayni) tell of the levying of taxes. Twenty years later, reconstruction and repair works, probably sponsored by some wealthy inhabitants, were being done on the mausoleums of Shia saints in the city, which contradict those sources, such as Ḥamd-Allāh Mostawfi, that describe Qom as

4387-470: The attempt to enforce collective responsibility by the taxpayers had failed. The information in the Tāriḵ-e Qom on taxation also mention by name 21 tax districts (rasātiq) in the region with 900 villages. Little is known about the time until the period of Seljuki dominance. In 387/997, Qom became involved in internal Buyid quarrels and was subsequently unsuccessfully besieged. In 418/1027–28, Qom fell under

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4494-497: The bigger settlements that were loosely connected by defense installations. It is difficult to decipher the actual process of the Arab conquest of Qom from the extant Arabic sources. According to Balāḏori, the first tentative conquest of Qom took place in 23/644 by Abu Musa Ashaari after a few days of fighting (although Abu Musa's route through Western Persia , as narrated by Balāḏori, appears somewhat confusing). It remains unclear who

4601-497: The blood of 60,000 martyrs". How 98.2% of voters approved of Iran becoming an Islamic Republic. Our nation "intends to establish the ideal and model society" with the final goal of "movement toward God". Governance by the " just faqih " will prevent deviation of the government from essential Islamic duties. The economy in Islam will be "a means not an end", providing work, "suitable opportunities", "essential needs". The family

4708-402: The city every year, the majority being Iranians but also other Shi'a Muslims from all around the world. Qom has developed into a lively industrial center owing in part to its proximity to Tehran. It is a regional center for the distribution of petroleum and petroleum products, and a natural gas pipeline from Bandar Anzali and Tehran and a crude oil pipeline from Tehran run through Qom to

4815-455: The city's refusal to pay taxes. Mofleḥ became governor of Qom and lasted in that position for at least five years. During his governorship important Alids moved to Qom and there are references to close contacts between the representative of the 11th Shia's Imam, Hassan al-Askari , in Qom and other Qomis. The representative Aḥmad b. Esḥāq was at the same time administrator of the Fāṭema sanctuary and

4922-404: The city, too, as the payment of poll tax (jezya) indicates, although their number can only be very roughly estimated at a few thousand at the end of the 9th century and must have shrunk drastically in the 10th century. The majority of these non-Muslims were Zoroastrians, who made their living mostly as farmers. Jews must have lived in Qom as well, but information on them is scant. It is striking that

5029-498: The competing Seljuk factions in Jebāl and the city changed hands many times. The most stable period seems to have been the 14 years (513–27/1119–33) when Qom lay in Sanjar's sphere of power and witnessed the construction of a second Friday mosque. Qom enjoyed relative prosperity in its economy in the Seljuk period. The rigidly Sunni Seljuks seem to have practiced a pragmatic policy and one of

5136-543: The control of Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar . On being victorious over his enemies, the Qajar Sultan Fath Ali Shah was responsible for the repairs done on the sepulchre and Holy Shrine of Hæzræt Mæ'sume, as he had made such a vow. The city of Qom began another era of prosperity in the Qajar era. After Russian forces entered Karaj in 1915, many of the inhabitants of Tehran moved to Qom due to reasons of proximity, and

5243-552: The defenders of Qom were; probably fleeing Sasanian nobles and local soldiers returning from the great battles against the Arabs formed the core of the resistance. The area remained largely untouched for 60 years after the initial conquest and was probably administered from Isfahan . The first permanent settlement of Arab settlers in Qom took place during the revolts of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi and Moṭarref b. Moḡira b. Šaʿba in 66–77/685–96, when small groups of refugees moved there and Qom itself

5350-409: The determination of whether articles of the constitution meet Islamic criteria `lies within the exclusive jurisdiction of the leading Islamic jurists,` and non-jurists should not get involved. "It quickly became clear to Khomeini and his lieutenants that there existed considerable support and no mass opposition to the doctrine and that the constitution could serve to institutionalize both the supremacy of

5457-421: The eighth Imam of Shias Ali al-Ridha in the city in 201/816–17 proved to be of great importance for the later history of Qom. Fātimah bint Mūsā died while following her brother to Khorasan , a region in northern Iran. The place of her entombment developed from 869–70 into a building that was transformed over time into today's magnificent and economically important sanctuary. In 825–26, a major rebellion against

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5564-460: The election of the Experts. At the same time Ayatollah was publicly declaring the draft to be `correct`, he "had already started to denounce the supporters of a `Democratic Islamic Republic,` whose ideas were enshrined in the draft", and who included the man he had appointed president, Bazargan, as `enemies of Islam.` Also dismaying Bazargan and his colleagues, was the decision by the clerical members of

5671-499: The establishment of the office of the jahbaḏ (financial officer) as the tax broker for the city, which fostered local self-determination. In 909 Hosayn ibn Hamdan ibn Hamdun was appointed governor of Qom and Kāšān by the caliph Al-Moqtader and had to assist the caliph's army against the Saffarids in Fars . Altogether he stayed in power only for two years before he had to return to Baghdad. In

5778-543: The execution of ʿEzz-al-Din Yaḥyā, the naqib of the Shias, by the Tekesh in 592/1196 and the work on the tiles of the sanctuary (probably in 605–13/1208–17), which indicate a certain economic prosperity at a time of unstable political conditions. From 614/1217–18 until the Mongol attack, Qom remained under Muhammad II of Khwarezm . The Mongol invasion led to the total destruction of Qom by

5885-483: The faqih and clerical rule." The idea that Khomeini "should be entrusted with supreme authority under the constitution" was brought up by provincial clerics in the Assembly and was quickly embraced by the Assembly. The assembly worked for sixty-seven sessions and in four rounds. The first round was considered with a preliminary evaluating of principles. The second round considered with providing principles in groups. The third round dealt with approbation of principles and

5992-410: The final version of the constitution in a number of ways. It made no reference to velayat-e faqih , and did not "reserve any special posts for Islamic jurists" except on the guardian council where they made up a minority and were to be approved by the parliament from a list drawn up by the "highest religious authorities". Despite this, Khomeini made "only two small changes (in part to bar women from

6099-490: The first of two terms as President of Iran). While liberal and leftist values are present in the constitution, the overriding both are "the values, principles and institutions of an ideal Islamic society", The Ayatollah Khomeini's concept of Velayat-e Faqih , i.e. Guardianship or rule of the Islamic Jurist , is enshrined in several places in the constitution. One example is the section "Method of Governance in Islam" in

6206-800: The form of Greek names in two ancient geographical works (the Tabula Peutingera and Ptolemy's geographical tables) remains doubtful. The Sasanian epoch offers many archeological findings and remnants, besides the fact that various sources mention Qom. The most interesting building from an archeological point of view is the Qalʿa-ye Doḵtar in Qom itself, which was long thought to have served religious purposes, while more recent research points to an administrative use. The wider surroundings of Qom also contain numerous traces from palaces, religious, military and administrative buildings. Some of these are mentioned by Qomi, who also names many more fire temples in

6313-417: The formerly dominant Ashaaries had lost their leading positions by the end of the 10th century. This points at a new social situation that allowed assimilated Persians to join the local establishment. The city's topography in the 10th century still reflected the evolutionary merging of the original six villages; these were still separated by fields. The town center was located in the village of Mamajjān, which

6420-412: The fourth round with investigation of all collection of principles. According to a legal bill of council of revolution, the draft was put to a vote through a referendum, with voters given the option of voting yes or no. On 2–3 December 1979 Iranians voted, and the official result was over 99% in favor. (The vote was boycotted by some secular, leftist and Kurdish groups; and total of 15,578,956 votes

6527-453: The group of Ashaaries that emigrated from Kufa to the region of Qom. It is not exactly clear why they migrated, but it might have also been a general opposition to the Umayyad dynasty. A central element was the early contact with the leading local Zoroastrian Persian noble Yazdanfadar. As the Arabs required a great deal of pasture for their large herds of cattle and were much wealthier than

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6634-426: The guarantors (some of whom are known) of these taxes. At about the same time the early orthodox Shias achieved their victory in the town. In 893–94, at the latest, all extremists (ḡolāt) were driven out of town by the leading Shia shaikh of Qom, Aḥmad b. Moḥammed b. Isa Ashaari. Probably one year later, in 1895, the famous Islamic mystic Ḥosayn b. Manṣur Ḥallaj stayed in Qom, where he was arrested. From 895–96 onwards

6741-526: The history of Qom was connected with a family of Turkish military leaders from the army of the caliph Al-Mu'tadid , including the governor Berun (Birun). In the same year, Berun destroyed a big and probably still active fire temple located on the territory of the evolving city and probably opposite today's sanctuary of Fātimah bint Mūsā. In these unstable political times, Qom was visited by the vizier of Al-Moʿtazed, Obayd-Allah ibn Solayman, and two tax assessments were organized. An administrative peculiarity of Qom

6848-400: The individual are inviolate", "except in cases sanctioned by law". The Iranian constitution holds that “the investigation of individuals’ beliefs is forbidden, and no one may be molested or taken to task simply for holding a certain belief.” "Publications and the press are free to discuss issues" unless it is "deemed harmful to the principles of Islam or the rights of the public." Assembly

6955-670: The irrigation channels between 733 and 900. The Ašʿaris were also the proprietors of the water rights, which were safeguarded in the water authority (divān-e āb) that regulated the water shares. The system made the Ašʿaris the wealthiest inhabitants of Qom and stayed in place until 347/958–59 when they were expropriated by the Buyids, which consequently brought about a decline in the whole system of irrigation. Although there were attempts at restoration in 371/981–82, only three of originally twenty-one channels had flowing water which meant enough drinking water

7062-574: The known 18 tax figures ranging over 160 years there are great differences and the tax figures vary from 8 million to 2 million dirhams with a mean value at around 3 million. In taxation Qom always followed the solar calendar with its own local variation, starting from the death of the Sasanian Yazdegerd III . A highly differentiated tax administration existed and is known in great detail; 24 tax collectors (ʿommāl) are listed from 189/804–05 to 371/981–82 plus two jahabaḏa who acted as mediators after

7169-407: The local Persians, they slowly started to buy land and take over more villages. The decisive step for controlling the area was the elimination of the local Persian noble class that took place after the death of Yazdanfadar in 733. Although a few names of governors and their tax assessments are known from the time after the administrative independence, the death of Fātimah bint Mūsā , the sister of

7276-412: The main sources of this time (ʿAbd-al-Jalil Qazvini) speaks of good relations between the famous vizier Nizam al-Mulk and Seljuk sultans on the one hand, and members of the local nobility on the other. Sultans reportedly visited the sanctuary (although no specific sultan is mentioned by name) and in general no religiously motivated punitive action against Qom is known to have taken place. Under Seljuk rule

7383-675: The more proper rule of the Abbasid tax bureaucracy and the time of the Deylamid warlords where rules were bent arbitrarily. A stunning diversity of taxes is known (often meant to serve the Abbasid bureaucracy and the Deylamid and Buyid war machinery) but the Karaj (land tax), which was composed of many different separate sums, was the most important single tax existing in Qom at least since post-Sasanian times. Within

7490-407: The more visited sites of Qom are: Qom is well known for its many religious seminaries and institutes that offer advanced religious studies, which made this city the largest center for Shia scholarship in the world. There are an estimated 50,000 seminarians in the city coming from 80 countries, including Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Pakistan. Qom has seminaries for women and some non-Shia students. Most of

7597-566: The most and consisted of Persians and Arabs who had adopted the Persian of the time as their language and many social customs from the Persians, whose proportion was probably smaller than the Arabs. The Kurds lived in the countryside to the west. The Twelver Shia constituted the great majority of the population and many important Shia scholars of the time came from Qom or lived there. As many as 331 male Alids lived in Qom in 988–89, and they produced

7704-505: The movement dawned in June 1963 with " the devastating protest by Imam Khomeini against the American conspiracy known as the ' White Revolution '". The plan of Islamic government set forth by Imam Khomeini known as " governance of the faqih ". The fury of the Iranian people at a January 7, 1978 newspaper article insulting Imam Khomeini . The "watering" of the "sapling" of the revolution "by

7811-511: The old name of Qom to be "Komiran" (in the meaning of "Iran city"). The present town of Qom in Central Iran dates back to ancient times. Its pre-Islamic history can be partially documented, although the earlier epochs remain unclear. Excavations at Tepe Sialk indicate that the region had been settled since ancient times (Ghirshman and Vanden Berghe), and more recent surveys have revealed traces of large, inhabited places south of Qom, dating from

7918-516: The old thesis of a Seleucid religious building. Besides Khurha, which is already mentioned as Khor Abad at Qomi in the 9th century, the region has turned up a few other remnants from this epoch, including the four Parthian heads found near Qom, now kept in the National Museum of Iran in Tehran. Qomi names Parthian personalities as founders of villages in the Qom area. The possible mention of Qom in

8025-415: The population of the city as 1,201,158 people in 356,976 households. Qom, the capital of Qom province, is located 125 kilometers south of Tehran, on a low plain. The shrine of Fatimeh Masumeh, the sister of Imam Reza , is located in this city, which is considered by Shiʿa Muslims holy. The city is located in the boundary of the central desert of Iran ( Kavir-e Markazi ). At the 2011 census its population

8132-438: The post-Mongolian period. Qom paid 40,000 dinars, but more remarkable is the fact that some of the surrounding rural districts paid as much as Qom or even more, which suggests that the whole administrative structure of districts had also changed. In the late 14th century, the city was plundered by Tamerlane and the inhabitants were massacred. Qom gained special attention and gradually developed due to its religious shrine during

8239-459: The preamble, where it is stated in creating the political infrastructures and institutions which make the foundation of society on the basis of an ideological outlook, the righteous assume the responsibility of governing and administering the country with the Qur’anic verse (verily, my righteous servants shall inherit the earth Q.21:105) In case the term ‘righteous’ is ambiguous, a later section of

8346-485: The presidency and judgeships)", in the draft, and publicly stated his approval of the draft "on more than one occasion", declaring at one point that it "must be approved quickly". The Council of the Islamic Revolution approved of it unanimously after examination and "declared it to be the official preliminary draft of the Revolutionary Council". What happened next is disputed. The revolutionaries' original plan

8453-509: The presidency and the Majlis, or parliament." Main democratic procedures and rights are subordinate to the Guardian Council and the Supreme Leader , whose powers are spelled out in Chapter Eight (Articles 107–112). Over the course of the year 1978 Iran was subject to worsening cycles of "provocation, repression, and polarization" in political unrest. It became more and more clear that

8560-618: The relatively stable political period until 988–89, but Qom seems to have been isolated inside Persia because of its Shia creed. At the same time, the Fatima sanctuary was enlarged and the number of sayyeds residing in Qom reached a considerable number. In 373/984, Qom and its environs were impacted by the revolt of the Kurdish Moḥammad Barzikāni against the Buyid Fakr-Al-Dawla. The population amounted to 50,000 inhabitants at

8667-418: The remains of a Sasanian temple, or of a Seleucid Dionysian temple, or of a Parthian complex. Its true function is still a matter of dispute, but the contributions by Wolfram Kleiss point to a Parthian palace that served as a station on the nearby highway and was used until Sasanian times. The recently published results of the excavations carried out in 1955 by Iranian archeologists have, however, revived

8774-440: The revolution and on key features of the new Islamic regime: How the "anti-despotic movement for constitutional government [1906–1911], and anti-colonialist movement for the nationalization of petroleum " in the 1950s failed "due to departure from genuine Islamic positions"; a matter rectified by the "authentically Islamic and ideological line" under the leadership pursued under the leadership of Grand Ayatollah Khomeini. How

8881-575: The rule of Šahryuš from the Kakuyid dynasty and a few years later (1030–40) it became part of the Ghaznavid domain. The Seljuki did not occupy Qom at once but left the town and Jebāl in Kakuyid hands for ten years. From 442/1050–51 on, the city was under Seljuk rule and nothing is known about its fate until 487/1094. Afterwards the growing instability of the Seljuk empire involved Qom in the power struggles between

8988-443: The seminaries teach their students modern social sciences and Western thought as well as traditional religious studies. The Hawzah (a short form of al-Hawzah al-Ilmiyya), which presently consists of over 200 education and research centres and organisations, catering for over 40,000 scholars and students from over 80 sovereign states. The modern Qom hawza was revitalized by Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi and Grand Ayatollah Borujerdi and

9095-441: The sphere of interest of Daylami warlords and was relieved from the direct authority of the caliph, although it changed hands several times between 928 and 943. The Daylamites brutally exploited the city through harsh taxes. With the firm establishment of Buyids control from 340/951–52 on, the political circumstances were less troubled than before, although the economic situation deteriorated. No outstanding events are reported for

9202-466: The surprise of those outside his network. Also at odds with previous statements was that instead of quickly approving the draft, the Assembly for the Final Review of the Constitution (dominated by Khomeini supporters) rewrote it, adding a Guardian Jurist ( wali-e faqih ) leader with powers over other branches of government, and significantly increasing the power of the Council of Guardians. (The offices of

9309-495: The tax regulations of the caliphate broke out in Qom. It was caused by the refusal of the caliph Al-Ma'mun to lower the yearly tax assessment as he had done in Ray. The revolt was led by an Ashaari named Yahya ibn Emran, maintaining that taxes should not be paid to an unlawful ruler. Yahya was killed by troops sent by the caliph and the citizens were severely punished; the taxes were raised from 2 million to 7 million dirhams. Two years later

9416-564: The taxes were again raised by 700,000 dirham by the Ashaari governor Ali ibn Isa, who was subsequently deposed because he was strongly rejected by the inhabitants of Qom. But in 833 Ali returned to the post of governor (wali) and forcefully collected tax debts that were laid upon him by the caliph. He destroyed parts of Qom and handed over a wanted rebel to caliphal authorities under Al-Moʿtasem. Between 839–42 two contradicting tax assessments were carried out under turbulent circumstances which amounted to

9523-428: The theocracy shall be Quran and hadith , and as framed by the Assembly of Experts for Constitution , who hope that "this century will witness the establishment of a universal holy government and the downfall of all others." (See also: Mahdi and Mohammed al-Mahdi ) Some of the more important articles of the constitution are described below: The form of Government in Iran is that of an Islamic Republic following

9630-513: The time of Shapur I and Kawād I the names Godmān/Gomān and Ērān Win(n)ārd Kawād, both of which could be identified as Qom. Altogether one can assume that Qom functioned as a small administrative unit throughout the whole Sasanian era. Probably the urban structure of the Sasanian settlement of Qom can be compared with the type of city of Ctesiphon (Or. Madāʾen) and consisted of several villages and little towns with Abaraštejān, Mamajjān and Jamkarān as

9737-505: The time of the seizure of power by the first Sasanian king Ardashir I , who fought his decisive battles near Qom, and the collapse of the Sasanian empire, which is extensively reported by Ebn Aʿṯam Kufi and the Nehāyat al-Erab and names a certain Šērzād as the satrap of the region. The existence of an urban settlement in the Sasanian epoch is furthermore verified by Middle Persian sources (literary sources, inscriptions, and seals) that mention in

9844-541: The transfer of the capital from Tehran to Qom was even discussed. But the British and Russians defeated prospects of the plan by putting Ahmad Shah Qajar under political pressure. As a center of religious learning Qom fell into decline for about a century from 1820 to 1920 but had a resurgence when Shaykh Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi accepted an invitation to move from Sultanabad (now called Arak, Iran ), where he had been teaching, to Qom. In 1964–65, before his exile from Iran,

9951-460: The urban area of present Qom and its region, of which no archeological traces are left although the location of one fire temple can probably be equated with today's Masjed-e Emām in the city. According to Qomi, the most important fire temple of the area stood in the nearby village of Dizijan . Tāriḵ-e Qom and some other sources also speak of genuine historical figures of the Sasanian epoch in connection with Qom and its region. They shed new light on

10058-417: The years 301/913–14 to 315/927, the people of Qom had, besides another tax assessment (meanwhile the eighth), a caliphal intervention that resulted in the appointment of a governor to stabilize the administrative grip over the region. This move caused more unrest and affected the balance of power in an area that was disputed between the powers of the time (Daylamites, Samanids). Beginning in 316/928 Qom fell into

10165-514: Was 1,074,036, comprising 545,704 males and 528,332 females. Qom is a focal center of the Shiʿah . Since the revolution, the clerical population has risen from around 25,000 to more than 45,000 and the non-clerical population has more than tripled to about 700,000. Substantial sums of money in the form of alms and Islamic taxes flow into Qom to the ten Marja' -e taqlid or "Source to be Followed" that reside there. The number of seminary schools in Qom

10272-537: Was affected by the fighting between the Umayyad state power and the rebels The decisive step for the later urban development of Qom occurred when a group of Ashaari Arabs came to the area. These Ashaaries originated in Yemen and the first important figure among them was the first conqueror of the area of Qom, the above-mentioned Abu Musa Ashaari. ʿAbd-Allāh b. Saʿd and Aḥwaṣ b. Saʿd were grandsons of Abi Musa's nephew and led

10379-569: Was almost 5 million less than the earlier referendum for an Islamic Republic.) On 24 April 1989, Ayatollah Khomeini issued a decree convening an Assembly for Revising the Constitution. It made several changes in the constitution, in Articles 5, 107, 109, 111, eliminating the need for the Supreme Leader to be a Marja' chosen by popular acclaim. It made permanent the Expediency Discernment Council to work out disagreements between

10486-403: Was assigned to the ministry of foreign affairs . As of 2024, following members are: 35°47′02″N 51°31′51″E  /  35.7840°N 51.5308°E  / 35.7840; 51.5308 Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran ( Persian : قانون اساسی جمهوری اسلامی ایران , Qanun-e Asasi-ye Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi-ye Iran )

10593-567: Was connected to other parts of the city on the other side of the river by four bridges. There were about eight squares whose function is not clear and three mosques within the city. There is almost no information about madrasas. The sanctuary must have still been quite small as only two cupolas are mentioned. A bazaar and bathhouses must have existed, too, as well as certain administrative buildings (prison, mint). Five bigger and eight smaller roads indicate good traffic connections, which were supported by at least three or maybe even nine city gates. Qom

10700-650: Was influential and provided a number of community leaders. Another important Shia family was that of the Daʿwidār ( Persian: دعوی‌دار ), whose members were judges ( Arabic: قاضی ) in town, which indicates the transformation of Qom from a town governed by the Sunnis to a completely Shai domain. The following epochs of the Eldiguzids and Khawrazmshahs lasted for almost 30 years and brought different systems of rule in quick succession. The two noteworthy events of this period are

10807-418: Was not recognized for men. There is no legal discrimination on the basis of personal status against Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, all of whom perform military service, pay no special taxes and hold full citizenship; nevertheless they are prohibited from assuming leadership posts and vote in separate colleges. Similarly, a Muslim foreigner has the same status as a Christian foreigner. In short Iranian citizenship

10914-463: Was officially recognized, 55 were clerics", almost all of them following "the line of the Imam", i.e. Khomeini loyalists. (Other delegates were from different minorities of religions, scientists, Athletes.) Schirazi writes that Khomeini then announced that the job of "determining whether or not" the constitution was "in conformity with Islamic requirements" was "exclusively reserved for revered jurists", to

11021-488: Was put to an end at about the same time, to wit the independent appointment of judges through the Arab inhabitants of Qom until the time of al-Moktafi, which, together with the dispatch of a joint Arab-Persian delegation to the vizier Ḥamid ibn Abbas indicate the end of the elevated position of the Arabs in Qom. The period of the governor Abbas ibn Amr Ganawi (292–96/904–09) is remarkable for the presence of non-Twelver Shias in Qom and

11128-423: Was supplied for the population, but the available amount could not have been adequate for agricultural purposes. Altogether the state of cultivation in Qom seems to have resembled that of the other regions of Persia, although the thirty different crops and plants are only indirectly mentioned in connection with the tax assessments. The soil is reported to have good quality and produced big quantities of food. Little

11235-455: Was then in a difficult economic and social position. Many houses inside the city as well as bridges and mills were ruined, and the roads and agriculture were suffering from an insecure situation. This has to be attributed to difficult social circumstances and excessive taxation. The water supply seems to have been satisfactory and the Ashaaries seem to have undertaken continuous renovation works on

11342-457: Was to have a Constituent Assembly of hundreds of people write the new constitution, but with this broad support for the preliminary draft, there now seemed to be a consensus in favor of a much more streamlined completion. An "Assembly of Experts" of only a few dozen members would go over the text and "present it for final ratification in a national referendum". But Baqer Moin writes of contradictions in statements by Khomeini and questions about

11449-428: Was −23 °C (−9 °F) on 15 January 2008. Authority for the city lies with the mayor, who is elected by a municipal board. The municipal board is periodically elected by the city's residents. The municipal central office is located on Saheli Street. The current mayor of Qom is Mohammad Delbari. Iran's Cultural Heritage Organization lists 195 sites of historical and cultural significance in Qom. But

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