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64-468: The SNAP program developed as a result of Project Feedback, a Rand Corporation study of reconnaissance satellites completed in 1954. As some of the proposed satellites had high power demands, some as high as a few kilowatts, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) requested a series of nuclear power-plant studies from industry in 1951. Completed in 1952, these studies determined that nuclear power plants were technically feasible for use on satellites. In 1955,

128-463: A faulty command sent by ground control resulted in loss of contact. The command was intended to uplink new battery charging software to improve the lander's deteriorating battery capacity, but it inadvertently overwrote data used by the antenna pointing software. Attempts to contact the lander during the next four months, based on the presumed antenna position, were unsuccessful. In 2006, the Viking 1 lander

192-489: A few hours at about 300 kilometers (190 miles) altitude, the lander was reoriented for atmospheric entry. The aeroshell with its ablative heat shield slowed the craft as it plunged through the atmosphere . During this time, entry science experiments were performed by using a retarding potential analyzer, a mass spectrometer , as well as pressure, temperature, and density sensors. At 6 km (3.7 mi) altitude, traveling at about 250 meters per second (820 feet per second),

256-432: A flatness of 0.0105 (22.480° N, 47.967° W planetographic) at 11:53:06 UTC (16:13 local Mars time). Approximately 22 kilograms (49 lb) of propellants were left at landing. Transmission of the first surface image began 25 seconds after landing and took about four minutes (see below). During these minutes the lander activated itself. It erected a high-gain antenna pointed toward Earth for direct communication and deployed

320-673: A gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer; an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer; pressure, temperature and wind velocity sensors; a three-axis seismometer; a magnet on a sampler observed by the cameras; and various engineering sensors. The Viking 1 lander was named the Thomas Mutch Memorial Station in January 1981 in honour of Thomas A. Mutch , the leader of the Viking imaging team. The lander operated for 2,245 sols (about 2,306 Earth days or 6 years) until November 11, 1982 (sol 2600), when

384-735: A merger offer from the Wright Company , creating the Wright-Martin Aircraft Company. This merger did not function well, so Glenn Martin left to form a second Glenn L. Martin Company on September 10, 1917. This new company was headquartered in Cleveland, Ohio . In 1913, Mexican insurgents from the northwestern state of Sonora bought a single-seater Martin Pusher biplane in Los Angeles with

448-459: A meteorology boom mounted with sensors. In the next seven minutes the second picture of the 300° panoramic scene (displayed below) was taken. On the day after the landing the first colour picture of the surface of Mars (displayed below) was taken. The seismometer failed to uncage, and a sampler arm locking pin was stuck and took five days to shake out. Otherwise, all experiments functioned normally. The lander had two means of returning data to Earth:

512-711: A power conversion but used a secondary heat air blast system to dissipate the heat to the atmosphere. The SER used a similar reactor reflector moderator device as the SNAP-10A but with only one reflector. Criticality was achieved in September 1959 with final shutdown completed in December 1961. The project was considered a success. It gave continued confidence in the development of the SNAP Program and it also led to in depth research and component development. The SNAP-2 Developmental Reactor

576-552: A powerful Centaur rocket upper stage, was used to launch the heavy Cassini space probe to the planet Saturn in 1997. The Cassini probe orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017, successfully returning mountains of scientific data. The halting of production of the Titan IV in 2004 brought to an end production of the last rocket able to carry a heavier payload than the Space Shuttle, which itself ended in 2011. The Martin Company merged with

640-440: A relay link up to the orbiter and back, and by using a direct link to Earth. The orbiter could transmit to Earth (S-band) at 2,000 to 16,000 bit/s (depending on distance between Mars and Earth), and the lander could transmit to the orbiter at 16,000 bit/s. The data capacity of the relay link was about 10 times higher than the direct link. The lander had two facsimile cameras; three analyses for metabolism, growth or photosynthesis;

704-424: Is a strong oxidant so it may have destroyed any organic matter on the surface. If it is widespread on Mars, carbon-based life would be difficult at the soil surface. Gravitational time dilation is a phenomenon predicted by the theory of general relativity whereby time passes more slowly in regions of lower gravitational potential . Scientists used the lander to test this hypothesis, by sending radio signals to

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768-468: Is located in the center of the fuel block. Capsule is surrounded by a platinum sphere, approximately 2 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches in diameter, which provides shielding and acts as an energy absorber for impact considerations. This assembly is enclosed in graphite and beryllium sub-assemblies to provide the proper thermal distribution and ablative protection. SNAP-19(B) was developed for the Nimbus-B satellite by

832-521: The Apollo 11 Moon landing. The lander separated from the orbiter at 08:51 UTC and landed at Chryse Planitia at 11:53:06 UTC. It was the first attempt by the United States at landing on Mars. The instruments of the orbiter consisted of two vidicon cameras for imaging, an infrared spectrometer for water vapor mapping, and infrared radiometers for thermal mapping. The orbiter primary mission ended at

896-538: The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packages (ALSEP) left on the Moon by Apollo 12 , 14 , 15 , 16 , and 17 . The SNAP-27 power supply weighed about 20 kilograms, was 46 cm long and 40.6 cm in diameter. It consisted of a central fuel capsule surrounded by concentric rings of thermocouples. Outside of the thermocouples was a set of fins to provide for heat rejection from the cold side of

960-550: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration . Two SNAP-8 reactors were produced: The SNAP 8 Experimental Reactor and the SNAP 8 Developmental Reactor. Both SNAP 8 reactors used the same highly enriched uranium zirconium hydride fuel as the SNAP 2 and SNAP 10A reactors. The SNAP 8 design included primary and secondary NaK loops to transfer heat to the mercury rankine power conversion system. The electrical generating system for

1024-793: The PBM Mariner and JRM Mars flying boats, widely used for air-sea rescue , anti-submarine warfare and transport. The 1941 Office for Emergency Management film Bomber was filmed in the Martin facility in Baltimore, and showed aspects of the production of the B-26. Martin ranked 14th among U.S. corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. The company built 1,585 B-26 Marauders and 531 Boeing B-29 Superfortresses at its new bomber plant in Nebraska , just south of Omaha at Offutt Field . Among

1088-668: The Titan IIIA , the more-important Titan IIIC , and the Titan IIIE . Besides hundreds of Earth satellites, these rockets were essential for the sending to outer space of the two space probes of the Voyager Project to the outer planets , the two space probes of the Viking Project to Mars , and the two Helios probes into low orbits around the Sun (closer, even, than Mercury ). Finally,

1152-647: The Transit satellite series. In April 1964 a SNAP-9A failed to achieve orbit and disintegrated, dispersing roughly 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of plutonium-238 over all continents. Most plutonium fell in the southern hemisphere. Estimated 6300 GBq or 2100 person-Sv of radiation was released. SNAP-11 was an experimental RTG intended to power the Surveyor probes during the lunar night. The curium-242 RTGs would have produced 25 watts of electricity using 900 watts of thermal energy for 130 days. The hot junction temperature

1216-495: The Viking 1 and Viking 2 landers. A SNAP-19C was used to power a telemetry array at Nanda Devi in Uttarakhand for a CIA operation to track Chinese missile launches. SNAP-21 and SNAP-23 were designed for underwater use and used strontium-90 as the radioactive source, encapsulated as either strontium oxide or strontium titanate . They produced about ten watts of electricity. Five SNAP-27 units provided electric power for

1280-722: The heat transfer fluid . Operated successfully for 2500 hours. SNAP-3 was the first RTG used in a space mission (1961). Launched aboard U.S. Navy Transit 4A and 4B navigation satellites . The electrical output of this RTG was 2.5 watts. SNAP-7A, D and F was designed for marine applications such as lighthouses and buoys; at least six units were deployed in the mid-1960s, with names SNAP-7A through SNAP-7F. SNAP-7D produced thirty watts of electricity using 225 kilocuries (8.3  PBq ) (about four kilograms) of strontium-90 as SrTiO 3 . These were very large units, weighing between 1,870 and 6,000 pounds (850 and 2,720 kg). After SNAP-3 on Transit 4A/B, SNAP-9A units served aboard many of

1344-410: The 16 m diameter lander parachutes deployed. Seven seconds later the aeroshell was jettisoned, and eight seconds after that the three lander legs were extended. In 45 seconds, the parachute had slowed the lander to 60 meters per second (200 feet per second). At 1.5 km (0.93 mi) altitude, retrorockets on the lander itself were ignited and, 40 seconds later at about 2.4 m/s (7.9 ft/s),

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1408-607: The 1930s, Martin built flying boats for the U.S. Navy , and the innovative Martin B-10 bomber for the Army. The Martin Company also produced the noted China Clipper flying boats used by Pan American Airways for its transpacific San Francisco to the Philippines route. During World War II, a few of Martin's most successful designs were the B-26 Marauder and A-22 Maryland bombers,

1472-566: The AEC began two parallel SNAP nuclear power projects. One, contracted with The Martin Company , used radio-isotopic decay as the power source for its generators. These plants were given odd-numbered SNAP designations beginning with SNAP-1. The other project used nuclear reactors to generate energy, and was developed by the Atomics International Division of North American Aviation . Their systems were given even-numbered SNAP designations,

1536-771: The American-Marietta Corporation, a chemical-products and construction-materials manufacturer, in 1961, to form the Martin Marietta Corporation . In 1995, Martin Marietta, then the nation's third-largest defense contractor, merged with the Lockheed Corporation , then the nation's second-largest defense contractor, to form the Lockheed Martin Corporation , becoming the largest such company in the world. The Martin Company employed many of

1600-651: The B-29s manufactured there were all the Silverplate aircraft, including Enola Gay and Bockscar , which dropped the two war-ending atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Japan . On April 22, 1957, the company name was changed to the Martin Company. Postwar efforts in aeronautics by the Martin Company included two unsuccessful prototype bombers, the XB-48 and the XB-51 ,

1664-457: The Earth's atmosphere, with the trajectory arranged so that the cask would land in the trench. The cask survived re-entry, as it was designed to do, and no release of plutonium has been detected. The corrosion resistant materials of the capsule are expected to contain it for 10 half-lives (870 years). A series of compact nuclear reactors intended for space use, the even numbered SNAPs were developed for

1728-658: The Martin Company merged with American-Marietta Corporation , a large industrial conglomerate, forming the Martin Marietta corporation. In turn, Martin Marietta in 1995 merged with aerospace giant Lockheed Corporation to form the Lockheed Martin corporation. Glenn L. Martin Company was founded by aviation pioneer Glenn Luther Martin on August 16, 1912. He started the company building military training aircraft in Santa Ana, California , and in September 1916, Martin accepted

1792-703: The Nuclear Division of the Martin-Marietta Company (now Teledyne Energy Systems). Fueled with plutonium-238, two parallel lead telluride thermocouple generators produced an initial maximum of approximately 30 watts of electricity. Nimbus 3 used a SNAP-19B with the recovered fuel from the Nimbus-B1 attempt. SNAP-19's powered the Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 missions. They used n-type 2N-PbTe and p-type TAGS-85 thermoelectric elements. Modified SNAP-19B's were used for

1856-504: The SNAP 8 reactors was supplied by Aerojet General . The SNAP 8 Experimental Reactor was a 600 kW t reactor that was tested from 1963 to 1965. The SNAP 8 Developmental Reactor had a reactor core measuring 9.5 by 33 inches (24 by 84 cm), contained a total of 18 pounds (8.2 kg) of fuel, had a power rating of 1 MW t . The reactor was tested in 1969 at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory . The SNAP-10A

1920-480: The U.S. government by the Atomics International division of North American Aviation . The SNAP Experimental Reactor (SER) was the first reactor to be built by the specifications established for space satellite applications. The SER used uranium zirconium hydride as the fuel and eutectic sodium-potassium alloy ( NaK ) as the coolant and operated at approximately 50 kW thermal. The system did not have

1984-664: The US Air Force required a booster rocket that could launch heavier satellites than either the Titan IIIE or the Space Shuttle . The Martin Company responded with its extremely large Titan IV series of rockets. When the Titan IV came into service, it could carry a heavier payload to orbit than any other rocket in production. Besides its use by the Air Force to launch its sequence of very heavy reconnaissance satellites , one Titan IV, with

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2048-663: The US Army's Pershing missile. The Martin Company was one of two finalists for the command and service modules of the Apollo Program . The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) awarded the design and production contracts for these to the North American Aviation Corporation. The Martin Company went further in the production of larger booster rockets for NASA and the U.S. Air Force with its Titan III series of over 100 rockets produced, including

2112-448: The areocentric longitude changed with each orbit, and the periapsis was raised to 357 km on July 20, 1979. On August 7, 1980, Viking 1 Orbiter was running low on attitude control gas and its orbit was raised from 357 × 33,943 km to 320 × 56,000 km to prevent impact with Mars and possible contamination until the year 2019. Operations were terminated on August 17, 1980, after 1,485 orbits. A 2009 analysis concluded that, while

2176-451: The beginning of solar conjunction on November 5, 1976. The extended mission commenced on December 14, 1976, after solar conjunction. Operations included close approaches to Phobos in February 1977. The periapsis was reduced to 300 km on March 11, 1977. Minor orbit adjustments were done occasionally over the course of the mission, primarily to change the walk rate — the rate at which

2240-612: The biology experiments, Viking carried a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer that could measure the composition and abundance of organic compounds in the Martian soil. The results were surprising and interesting: the spectrometer gave a negative result; the PR gave a negative result, the GEX gave a negative result, and the LR gave a positive result. Viking scientist Patricia Straat stated in 2009, "Our [LR] experiment

2304-424: The casting mold a little at a time otherwise it would crack as it cooled and solidified. Cracks in the shield material would be fatal to any space crew or payload depending on it because it would allow radiation to stream through to the crew/payload compartment. As the material cooled, it would form kind of a hollowed vortex in the middle. The development engineers had to create ways to fill the vortex while maintaining

2368-711: The end of hostilities. A follow-up design, the MB-2 , proved successful; 20 were ordered by the Army Air Service , the first five of them under the company designation and the last 15 as the NBS-1 (Night Bomber, Short range). Although the War Department ordered 110 more, it retained the ownership rights of the design, and put the order out for bid. The production orders were given to other companies that had bid lower, Curtiss (50), L.W.F. Engineering (35), and Aeromarine (25). The design

2432-415: The first being SNAP-2. Most of the systems development and reactor testing was conducted at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory , Ventura County, California using a number of specialized facilities. Radioisotope thermoelectric generators use the heat of radioactive decay to produce electricity. SNAP-1 was a test platform that was never deployed, using cerium-144 in a Rankine cycle with mercury as

2496-575: The first known air-to-naval bombing runs in history. For the Dutch East Indies, several planes were delivered, with the first flight on November 6, 1915. It involved two Type TEs, six Type TTs, and eight Type Rs. Martin's first big success came during World War I with the MB-1 bomber , a large biplane design ordered by the United States Army on January 17, 1918. The MB-1 entered service after

2560-545: The first successful Mars lander in history. Viking 1 operated on Mars for 2,307 days (over 6 1 ⁄ 4 years) or 2245 Martian solar days , the longest extraterrestrial surface mission until the record was broken by the Opportunity rover on May 19, 2010. Following launch using a Titan / Centaur launch vehicle on August 20, 1975, and an 11-month cruise to Mars, the orbiter began returning global images of Mars about five days before orbit insertion. The Viking 1 Orbiter

2624-460: The founders and chief engineers of the American aerospace industry, including: Martin also taught William Boeing how to fly and sold him his first airplane. Viking 1 Viking 1 was the first of two spacecraft , along with Viking 2 , each consisting of an orbiter and a lander, sent to Mars as part of NASA 's Viking program . The lander touched down on Mars on July 20, 1976,

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2688-464: The intention of attacking federal naval forces that were attacking the port of Guaymas . The aircraft was shipped on May 5, 1913, in five crates to Tucson, Arizona , via Wells Fargo Express , and then moved through the border into Mexico to the town of Naco, Sonora . The aircraft, named Sonora by the insurgents, was reassembled there and fitted with a second seat for a bomber position. The Sonora , armed with rudimentary 3-inch pipe bombs, performed

2752-494: The lander arrived on Mars with a relatively light jolt. The legs had honeycomb aluminum shock absorbers to soften the landing. The landing rockets used an 18-nozzle design to spread the hydrogen and nitrogen exhaust over a large area. NASA calculated that this approach would mean that the surface would not be heated by more than one 1 °C (1.8 °F), and that it would move no more than 1 millimeter (0.04 inches) of surface material. Since most of Viking's experiments focused on

2816-581: The marginally successful AM Mauler , the successful B-57 Canberra tactical bombers , the P5M Marlin and P6M SeaMaster seaplanes , and the Martin 4-0-4 twin-engined passenger airliner. The Martin Company moved into the aerospace manufacturing business. It produced the Vanguard rocket , used by the American space program as one of its first satellite booster rockets as part of Project Vanguard . The Vanguard

2880-567: The missions. After ten years, a SNAP-27 still produced more than 90% of its initial output of 75 watts. The fuel cask from the SNAP-27 unit carried by the Apollo 13 mission currently lies in 20,000 feet (6,100 m) of water at the bottom of the Tonga Trench in the Pacific Ocean . This mission failed to land on the moon, and the lunar module carrying its generator burnt up during re-entry into

2944-486: The nuclear reactor. Surrounding the reactor with a radiation shield was out of the question. It would be far too heavy to launch with the rockets available at that time. To protect the "crew" and "payload", the SNAP-2 system used a "shadow shield". The shield was a truncated cone containing lithium hydride . The reactor was at the small end and the crew capsule/payload was in the shadow of the large end. Studies were performed on

3008-454: The payloads to intense radiation. Efforts were made to mitigate these effects. The SNAP 2DR used a similar reactor reflector moderator device as the SNAP-10A but with two movable and internal fixed reflectors. The system was designed so that the reactor could be integrated with a mercury Rankine cycle to generate 3.5 kW of electricity. The SNAP-8 reactors were designed, constructed and operated by Atomics International under contract with

3072-431: The possibility that Viking 1 had impacted Mars could not be ruled out, it was most likely still in orbit. More than 57,000 images were sent back to Earth. The lander and its aeroshell separated from the orbiter on July 20 at 08:51 UTC. At the time of separation, the lander was orbiting at about 5 kilometers per second (3.1 miles per second). The aeroshell's retrorockets fired to begin the lander de-orbit maneuver. After

3136-628: The reactor was not started until it reached a safe orbit. SNAP-10A was launched into Earth orbit in April 1965, and used to power an Agena-D research satellite, built by Lockheed/Martin. The system produced 500W of electrical power during an abbreviated 43-day flight test. The reactor was prematurely shut down by a faulty command receiver. It is predicted to remain in orbit for 4,000 years. Glenn L. Martin Company The Glenn L. Martin Company , also known as The Martin Company from 1917 to 1961,

3200-414: The reactor, individual components and the support system. Atomics International, a division of North American Aviation did the development and testing work. The SNAP-2 Shield Development unit was responsible for developing the radiation shield. Creating the shield meant melting lithium hydride and casting it into the form required. The form was a big truncated cone. Molten lithium hydride had to be poured into

3264-409: The shield's integrity. And, in doing all this they had to keep in mind that they were working with a material that could be explosively unstable in a moist oxygen rich environment. Analysis also revealed that under thermal and radiation gradients, the lithium hydride could disassociate and hydrogen ions could migrate through the shield. This would produce variations of shielding efficacy and could subject

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3328-585: The side of the Lunar Module . The fuel cask provided thermal insulation and added structural support to the fuel capsule. On the Moon, the Lunar Module pilot removed the fuel capsule from the cask and inserted it in the RTG. These stations transmitted information about moonquakes and meteor impacts, lunar magnetic and gravitational fields, the Moon's internal temperature, and the Moon's atmosphere for several years after

3392-421: The soil. However, dry areas of Antarctica do not have detectable organic compounds either, but they have organisms living in the rocks. Mars has almost no ozone layer, unlike the Earth, so UV light sterilizes the surface and produces highly reactive chemicals such as peroxides that would oxidize any organic chemicals. The Phoenix Lander discovered the chemical perchlorate in the Martian soil. Perchlorate

3456-428: The surface material a more straightforward design would not have served. The Viking 1 lander touched down in western Chryse Planitia ("Golden Plain") at 22°41′49″N 312°03′00″E  /  22.697°N 312.05°E  / 22.697; 312.05 at a reference altitude of −2.69 kilometers (−1.67 mi) relative to a reference ellipsoid with an equatorial radius of 3,397 kilometers (2,111 mi) and

3520-403: The thermocouple. Each of the SNAP devices produced approximately 75 W of electrical power at 30 VDC. The energy source for each device was a rod of plutonium-238 providing a thermal power of approximately 1250 W. This fuel capsule, containing 3.8 kilograms (8.4 lb) of plutonium-238 in oxide form (44,500  Ci or 1.65  PBq ), was carried to the Moon in a separate fuel cask attached to

3584-527: Was 925 °F (496 °C; 769 K), the cold junction temperature was 350 °F (177 °C; 450 K). They had a liquid NaK thermal control system and a movable shutter to dump excess heat. They were not used on the Surveyor missions. In general, the SNAP 11 fuel block is a cylindrical multi-material unit which occupies the internal volume of the generator. TZM (molybdenum alloy) fuel capsule, fueled with curium-242 (Cm 2 O 3 in an iridium matrix)

3648-453: Was a definite positive response for life, but a lot of people have claimed that it was a false positive for a variety of reasons." Most scientists now believe that the data were due to inorganic chemical reactions of the soil; however, this view may be changing after the recent discovery of near-surface ice near the Viking landing zone. Some scientists still believe the results were due to living reactions. No organic chemicals were found in

3712-515: Was a space-qualified nuclear reactor power system launched into space in 1965 under the SNAPSHOT program. It was built as a research project for the Air Force, to demonstrate the capability to generate higher power than RTGs. The reactor employed two moveable beryllium reflectors for control, and generated 35 kW t at beginning of life. The system generated electricity by circulating NaK around lead tellurium thermocouples. To mitigate launch hazards,

3776-523: Was an American aircraft and aerospace manufacturing company founded by aviation pioneer Glenn L. Martin . The Martin Company produced many important aircraft for the defense of the US and allies, especially during World War II and the Cold War . During the 1950s and '60s, the Martin Company moved from the aircraft industry into the guided missile , space exploration , and space utilization industries. In 1961,

3840-491: Was imaged on the Martian surface by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . Viking 1 carried a biology experiment whose purpose was to look for evidence of life. The Viking lander biological experiments weighed 15.5 kg (34 lbs) and consisted of three subsystems: the pyrolytic release experiment (PR), the labeled release experiment (LR), and the gas exchange experiment (GEX). In addition, independent of

3904-416: Was inserted into Mars orbit on June 19, 1976, and trimmed to a 1,513 x 33,000 km, 24.66 h site certification orbit on June 21. Landing on Mars was planned for July 4, 1976, the United States Bicentennial , but imaging of the primary landing site showed it was too rough for a safe landing. The landing was delayed until a safer site was found, and took place instead on July 20, the seventh anniversary of

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3968-400: Was the first American space exploration rocket designed from scratch to be an orbital launch vehicle — rather than being a modified ballistic missile (such as the U.S. Army's Juno I ). Martin also designed and manufactured the huge and heavily armed Titan I and LGM-25C Titan II intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Martin Company of Orlando, Florida, was the prime contractor for

4032-471: Was the only standard bomber used by the Air Service until 1930, and was used by seven squadrons of the Air Service/Air Corps: Four in Virginia, two in Hawaii, and one in the Philippines. In 1924, the Martin Company underbid Curtiss for the production of a Curtiss-designed scout bomber, the SC-1 , and ultimately Martin produced 404 of these. In 1929, Martin sold the Cleveland plant and built a new one in Middle River, Maryland , northeast of Baltimore . During

4096-426: Was the second SNAP reactor built. This device used Uranium-zirconium hydride fuel and had a design reactor power of 55 kW t . It was the first model to use a flight control assembly and was tested from April 1961 to December 1962. The basic concept was that nuclear power would be a long term source of energy for crewed space capsules. However, the crew capsule had to be shielded from deadly radiation streaming from

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