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63-444: The reef is generated by the coral Lophelia pertusa , and it hosts a profuse marine population that ranges from plankton to fish . Lophelia is associated with anemones , jellyfish and other animals. Lophelia are filter feeders and get all their energy by collecting separate plankton from water that flows along deep water currents.The Lophelia coral provides a habitat for many kinds of invertebrates and fishes . Røst reef

126-400: A common occurrence, with 13 of 14 North Sea oil rigs examined having L. pertusa colonies. The authors of the original work suggested that it may be better to leave the lower parts of such structures in place— a suggestion opposed by Greenpeace campaigner Simon Reddy, who compared it to "[dumping] a car in a wood – moss would grow on it, and if I was lucky a bird may even nest in it. But this

189-423: A growth rate of around 1 mm per year. Polyps at the end of branches feed by extending their tentacles and straining plankton from the seawater. They are able to ingest particles of up to 2 cm, and are able to discriminate between food and sediment using their chemoreceptors to differentiate between the two. Growth of polyps depends on environmental factors such as food availability, water quality, and how

252-401: A hard surface in order to begin growing but sea fans can also live on soft sediments. They are often found growing along bathymetric highs such as seamounts, ridges, pinnacles and mounds, on hard surfaces. Corals are sedentary, so they must live near nutrient-rich water currents. Deep-water corals feed on zooplankton and rely on ocean currents to bring food. The currents also aid in cleaning

315-774: A link between the existence of the deep-water coral reefs and nutrients seepage (light hydrocarbons , such as methane, ethane , and propane ) through the seafloor. This hypothesis is called the 'hydraulic theory' for deep-water coral reefs. Lophelia communities support diverse marine life, such as sponges , polychaete worms , mollusks , crustaceans , brittle stars , starfish , sea urchins , bryozoans , sea spiders , fish, and many other vertebrate and invertebrate species. The first international symposium for deep-water corals took place in Halifax, Canada in 2000. The symposium considered all aspects of deep-water corals, including protection methods. In June 2009, Living Oceans Society led

378-625: A parasitic relationship with L. pertusa by attaching to polyps on the coral. Although settlement and reproduction are carried out by H. sarchophaga , this parasitism is not detrimental to the coral. L. pertusa has been reported from Anguilla , Bahamas , Bermuda , Brazil , Canada , Cape Verde , Colombia , Cuba , Cyprus , Ecuador , Faroe Islands , France , French Southern Territories , Greece , Grenada , Iceland , India , Ireland , Italy , Jamaica , Japan , Madagascar , Mexico , Montserrat , Norway , Portugal , Puerto Rico , Saint Helena , Saint Kitts and Nevis , Saint Vincent and

441-432: A specialized habitat favored by some species of deep water fishes. Surveys have recorded that conger eels , sharks , groupers , hake and the invertebrate community consisting of brittle stars , molluscs , amphipods and crabs reside on these beds. High densities of smaller fish such as hatchetfish and lanternfish have been recorded in the waters over Lophelia beds, indicating they may be important prey items for

504-754: A sperm fertilize an egg which grows into a larva. Currents then disperse the larvae. Growth begins when the larvae attach to a solid substrate. Old/dead coral provides an excellent substrate for this growth, creating ever higher mounds of coral. As new growth surrounds the original, the new coral intercepts both water flow and accompanying nutrients, weakening and eventually killing the older organisms. Individual Lophelia pertusa colonies are entirely either female or male. Deep-water coral colonies range in size from small and solitary to large, branching tree-like structures. Larger colonies support many life forms, while nearby areas have much less. The gorgonian, Paragorgia arborea , may grow beyond three meters. However, little

567-565: Is no sunlight . As a coral, it represents a colonial organism , which consists of many individuals. New polyps live and build upon the calcium carbonate skeletal remains of previous generations. Living coral ranges in colour from white to orange-red; each polyp has up to 16 tentacles and is a translucent pink, yellow or white. Unlike most tropical corals, the polyps are not interconnected by living tissue. Some colonies have larger polyps while others have small and delicate -looking ones. Radiocarbon dating indicates that some Lophelia reefs in

630-504: Is a branching ivory coral that forms giant but slow-growing, bushy thickets on pinnacles up to 30 metres (98 ft) in height. The Oculina Banks, so named because they consist mostly of Oculina varicosa , exist in 50–100 metres (160–330 ft) of water along the continental shelf edge about 42–80 km (26–50 miles) off of Florida's central east coast. The Oculina Banks stretch along 170 kilometers (106 miles) reaching from Fort Pierce to Daytona. Discovered in 1975 by scientists from

693-549: Is a habitat for invertebrates like worms , starfish , and lobsters , as well as vertebrates like fishes, that depend on deep-sea corals . The corals offer food, places to hide from predators , nurseries, and a solid surface. Studies performed by the Institute of Marine Research at Storegga, Norway , have shown a significantly higher density of tusk (Brosme brosme) and redfish (Sebastes marinus) in Lophelia areas as compared to

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756-402: Is a reef building, deep water coral, but it does not contain zooxanthellae , the symbiotic algae which lives inside most tropical reef building corals. Lophelia lives at a temperature range from about 4–12 °C (39–54 °F) and at depths between 80 metres (260 ft) and over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), but most commonly at depths of 200–1,000 metres (660–3,280 ft), where there

819-431: Is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat. Deep-water corals are enigmatic because they construct their reefs in deep, dark, cool waters at high latitudes, such as Norway's Continental Shelf . They were first discovered by fishermen about 250 years ago, which garnered interest from scientists. Early scientists were unsure how the reefs sustained life in the seemingly barren and dark conditions of

882-510: Is from deep-water trawling. Trawlers drag nets across the ocean floor, disturbing sediments, breaking, and destroying deep-water corals. Additionally, long-line fishing poses another harmful method. Oil and gas exploration also cause damage to deep-water coral. A 2015 study revealed that observed injury in populations in the Mississippi Canyon in the Gulf of Mexico surged significantly after

945-683: Is known of their basic biology, including how they feed or their methods and timing of reproduction. Deep sea corals together with other habitat-forming organisms host a rich fauna of associated organisms. Lophelia reefs can host up to 1,300 species of fish and invertebrates. Various fish aggregate on deep sea reefs. Deep sea corals, sponges and other habitat-forming animals provide protection from currents and predators, nurseries for young fish, and feeding, breeding and spawning areas for numerous fish and shellfish species. Rockfish, Atka mackerel, walleye pollock, Pacific cod, Pacific halibut, sablefish, flatfish, crabs, and other economically important species in

1008-520: Is not a major threat to the survival of L. pertusa . The OSPAR Commission for the protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic have recognized Lophelia pertusa reefs as a threatened habitat in need of protection. The primary threats arise from the devastation of reefs caused by the use of heavy deep-sea trawl nets, specifically aimed at catching redfish or grenadiers . These nets, equipped with heavy metal "doors" to keep

1071-444: Is not justification to fill our forests with disused cars". Recovery of damaged L.pertusa will be a slow process not only due to its slow growth rate, but also due to its low rates of colonization and recolonization process. This is because even if L.pertusa produces a dispersive larva, a sediment free surface is required to initiate a new settlement. Moreover, excessive sedimentation and chemical contaminants will negatively impact

1134-785: Is one of a dozen species that occur globally and in all oceans, including the Subantarctic (Cairns, 1982). Colonies of Enallopsammia contribute to the framework of deep-water coral banks found at depths of 600 to 800 metres (2,000–2,600 ft) in the Straits of Florida (Cairns and Stanley, 1982). One of the most common species, Lophelia pertusa , lives in the Northeast and Northwest Atlantic Ocean , Brazil and off Africa ’s west coast. Aside from ocean bottoms, scientists found Lophelia colonies on North Sea oil installations. However, oil and gas production may introduce harmful substances into

1197-632: Is particularly noted for its Lophelia pertusa and Madrepora oculata colonies. Lophelia reefs are also found along the U.S. East Coast at depths of 500–850 metres (1,640–2,790 ft) along the base of the Florida-Hatteras slope. South of Cape Lookout , NC, rising from the flat sea bed of the Blake Plateau, is a band of ridges capped with thickets of Lophelia . These are the northernmost East Coast Lophelia pertusa growths. The coral mounds and ridges here rise as much as 150 metres (490 ft) from

1260-575: Is recorded in patterns of growth, and can be studied to investigate climatic variation in the recent past. L. pertusa was listed under CITES Appendix II in January 1990, meaning that the United Nations Environmental Programme recognizes that this species is not necessarily currently threatened with extinction but that it may become so in the future. CITES is a means of restricting international trade in endangered species, which

1323-509: Is the Sula Reef , located on the Sula Ridge, west of Trondheim on the mid-Norwegian Shelf, at 200–300 metres (660–980 ft). It is 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) long, 700 metres (2,300 ft) wide, and up to 700 metres (2,300 ft) high, an area one-tenth the size of the 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi) Røst Reef. Discovered and mapped in 2002, Norway's Tisler Reef is situated in

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1386-549: The Darwin Mounds . Atlantic Frontier Environmental Network (AFEN) discovered them in 1998 while conducting large-scale regional sea floor surveys north of Scotland . They discovered two areas of hundreds of sand and deep-water coral mounds at depths of about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in the northeast corner of the Rockall Trough , approximately 185 kilometres (115 mi) northwest of the northwest tip of Scotland. Named after

1449-489: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill . The injury rates increased from 4 to 9 percent before the spill to 38 to 50 percent after the spill (Etnoyer et al., 2015). Deep-water corals have a slow growth rate, resulting in a much longer recovery period compared to shallow waters where nutrients and food-providing zooxanthellae are more abundant. Another study conducted during 2001 to 2003 focused on a reef of Lophelia pertusa in

1512-695: The Norwegian Sea and the Northeast Atlantic Ocean. At depths from 200 to 500 metres (660 to 1,640 ft), L. pertusa is chiefly on the Rockall Bank and on the shelf break north and west of Scotland. The Porcupine Seabight , the southern end of the Rockall Bank, and the shelf to the northwest of County Donegal all exhibit large, mound-like Lophelia structures. One of them, the Therese Mound,

1575-815: The Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and thorny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians (sea fans). Like tropical corals, they provide habitat to other species, but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive. While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species, only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs. Instead, they form aggregations called patches, banks, bioherms , massifs, thickets or groves. These aggregations are often referred to as "reefs," but differ structurally and functionally. Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as "mounds," which more accurately describes

1638-561: The Polar Circle , off northern Norway. During their survey of the Fugløy reef, Hovland and Mortensen also found seabed pockmark craters near the reef. Since then, hundreds of large deep-water coral reefs have been mapped and studied. About 60 percent of the reefs occur next to or inside seabed pockmarks. Because these craters are formed by the expulsion of liquids and gases (including methane ), several scientists hypothesize that there may be

1701-451: The Røst Reef closed to bottom trawling in 2002. Bottom trawling leads to siltation or sand deposition, which involves the disturbance of underlying sediments and nutrients. This harmful process destroys and decreases the growth of coral reefs, affecting the expansion of polyp budding. In recent years, environmental organizations such as Greenpeace have argued that exploration for oil on

1764-536: The Skagerrak , marking the submarine border between Norway and Sweden . It rests at a depth of 90–120 meters (300–390 feet) and spans an area of approximately 2 by 0.2 kilometers (1.24 mi × 0.12 mi). It is estimated to be 8600–8700 years old. The Tisler Reef contains the world’s only known yellow L. pertusa . Elsewhere in the northeastern Atlantic, Lophelia is found around the Faroe Islands , an island group between

1827-456: The Atlantic off Canada. This study found that the corals were often broken in unnatural ways, and the ocean floor displayed scars and overturned boulders from trawling. Apart from managed pressures such as deep-water trawling and oil exploration, deep-water coral reefs are susceptible to unmanaged pressures like ocean acidification . To safeguard these habitats in the long term, methods evaluating

1890-726: The Canadian Government for these slow-growing and long-lived animals, which provide critical habitat for fish and other marine creatures. Corals are animals in the phylum Cnidaria and the class Anthozoa . Anthozoa is broken down into two subclasses Octocorals (Alcyonaria) and Hexacorals (Zoantharia). Octocorals are soft corals such as sea pens . Hexacorals include sea anemones and hard bodied corals. Octocorals contain eight body extensions while Hexacorals have six. Most deep-water corals are stony corals. Deep-water corals are widely distributed in Earth’s oceans, with large reefs/beds in

1953-731: The Exploration of the Sea , the European Commission ’s main scientific advisor on fisheries and environmental issues in the northeast Atlantic, recommend mapping and closing Europe’s deep corals to fishing trawlers. In 1999, the Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries implemented a closure on an expanse of 1,000 square kilometers (390 sq mi), which encompassed the expansive Sula Reef , prohibiting bottom trawling. Subsequently, in 2000, an additional area covering roughly 600 square kilometers (230 sq mi)

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2016-525: The Finding Coral Expedition on Canada’s Pacific coast in search of deep sea corals. Using one person submarines, a team of international scientists made 30 dives to depths of over 500 metres (1,600 ft) and saw giant coral forests, darting schools of fish, and a seafloor carpeted in brittle stars . During this expedition, scientists identified 16 species of corals. This research was the culmination of five years of work to secure protection from

2079-594: The Grenadines , Senegal , South Africa , United Kingdom , United States of America , U.S. Virgin Islands and Wallis and Futuna Islands . Cold-water coral The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper, darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 °C (39 °F). Deep-water corals belong to

2142-675: The Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution conducting surveys of the continental shelf, Oculina thickets grow on a series of pinnacles and ridges extending from Fort Pierce to Daytona, Florida Like the Lophelia thickets, the Oculina Banks host a wide array of macroinvertebrates and fishes. They are significant spawning grounds for commercially important food species including gag , scamp , red grouper , speckled hind , black sea bass , red porgy , rock shrimp , and calico scallop . Most corals must attach to

2205-598: The North Pacific inhabit these areas. Eighty-three percent of the rockfish found in one study were associated with red tree coral. Flatfish, walleye pollock and Pacific cod appear to be more commonly caught around soft corals. Dense schools of female redfish heavy with young have been observed on Lophelia reefs off Norway, suggesting the reefs are breeding or nursery areas for some species. Oculina reefs are important spawning habitat for several grouper species, as well as other fishes. The primary human impact on deep-water corals

2268-508: The North Sea. Using coral age-dating methods, scientists have estimated that some living deep-water corals date back at least 10,000 years. Deep-water corals use nematocysts on their tentacles to stun prey. Deep-water corals feed on zooplankton , crustaceans and even krill . Coral can reproduce sexually or asexually . In asexual reproduction (budding) a polyp divides in two genetically identical pieces. Sexual reproduction requires that

2331-618: The South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) designated a 315 square kilometres (122 sq mi) area as a Habitat Area of Particular Concern. In 1994, an area called the Experimental Oculina Research Reserve was completely closed to bottom fishing. In 1996, the SAFMC prohibited fishing vessels from dropping anchors, grapples, or attached chains there. In 1998, the council also designated

2394-523: The bottom. While this is certainly a wise and valuable step towards the protection of this unique natural feature, according to the information from the Norwegian Directorate of Fisheries the reef is still unprotected from the potential impacts of petroleum activities. WWF proposes the establishment of a zone in which petroleum activities in the Røst area will be prohibited. This zone should encompass

2457-456: The corals. Deep-water corals grow more slowly than tropical corals because there are no zooxanthellae to feed them. Lophelia has a linear polyp extension of about 10 millimetres (0.39 in) per year. By contrast, branching shallow-water corals, such as Acropora , may exceed 10–20 cm/yr. Reef structure growth estimates are about 1 millimetre (0.039 in) per year. Scientists have also found Lophelia colonies on oil installations in

2520-671: The far North and far South Atlantic, as well as in areas with warmer water such as along the Florida coast. In the north Atlantic, the principal coral species that contribute to reef formation are Lophelia pertusa , Oculina varicosa , Madrepora oculata , Desmophyllum cristagalli , Enallopsammia rostrata , Solenosmilia variabilis , and Goniocorella dumosa . Four genera ( Lophelia , Desmophyllum , Solenosmilia , and Goniocorella ) constitute most deep-water coral banks at depths of 400–700 metres (1,300–2,300 ft). Madrepora oculata occurs as deep as 2,020 metres (6,630 ft) and

2583-401: The large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off, rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates. Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs. Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs. The deep-water habitat

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2646-527: The larger fish below. L. pertusa also forms a symbiosis with polychaete Eunice norvegica . It is suggested that E. norvegica positively influences L.pertusa by forming connecting tubes, which are later calcified, in order to strengthen the reef frameworks. While E. norvegica requires partial consumption of the food obtained by L. pertusa , E. norvegica aids in cleaning the living coral framework and protecting it from potential predators. Foraminiferans including Hyrrokkin sarcophaga also carry out

2709-523: The larvae, even when they are available in large numbers. As ocean temperatures continue to rise due to global warming, climate change is another deadly factor that threatens the existence of L. pertusa . Although L. pertusa can survive changes in oxygen levels during periods of hypoxia and anoxia, they are vulnerable to sudden temperature changes. These fluctuations in temperature affect their metabolic rate, which has detrimental consequences regarding their energy input and growth. Lophelia beds create

2772-647: The latest licensing round as the Norwegian Ministry of Oil and Energy felt a need for more information before allowing further petroleum activities in this area, including possible measures to protect coral reefs. In general, little is known about the impacts of oil and gas exploration on Lophelia colonies . Infrastructure development may lead to physical destruction of reefs and stress due to increased sedimentation. Discharges related to drilling and production ( drilling muds and produced water ) contain substances known to affect other marine organisms negatively. Until

2835-682: The local environment. The world's largest known deep-water Lophelia coral complex is the Røst Reef . It lies between 300 and 400 metres (980 and 1,310 ft) deep, west of Røst island in the Lofoten archipelago, in Norway, inside the Arctic Circle. Discovered during a routine survey in May 2002, the reef is still largely intact. It is approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) long by 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) wide. Some 500 kilometres (310 mi) further south

2898-488: The long-term impacts of these discharges on Lophelia have been determined, no such discharges will be allowed near the Røst Reef. To protect the Røst Reef from damaging fishery activities, a proposal to amend the 1999 Coral Regulation is being considered by the Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries . With this amendment, the Røst Reef and a 5 km zone on all sides will be protected from all fishing using equipment that may touch

2961-702: The mound tops, attracting other marine life. The mounds look like 'sand volcanoes', each with a 'tail', up to several hundred meters long, all oriented downstream. Large congregations of Xenophyophores ( Syringammina fragilissima ) which are giant unicellular organisms that can grow up to 25 centimetres (9.8 in) in diameter characterize the tails and mounds. Scientists are uncertain why these organisms congregate here. The Darwin Mounds Lophelia grow on sand rather than hard substrate, unique to this area. Lophelia corals exist in Irish waters as well. Oculina varicosa

3024-542: The net open, and a "footline" fitted with large metal "rollers," are dragged across the seabed, inflicting severe damage on coral. Given the slow growth rate of coral, this practice is unlikely to be sustainable in the long term. Scientists estimate that trawling has damaged or destroyed 30%–50% of the Norwegian shelf coral area. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea , the European Commission ’s main scientific advisor on fisheries and environmental issues in

3087-495: The north west continental shelf slopes of Europe should be curtailed due to the possibility that is it damaging to the Lophelia reefs - conversely, Lophelia has recently been observed growing on the legs of oil installations, specifically the Brent Spar rig which Greenpeace campaigned to remove. At the time, the growth of L. pertusa on the legs of oil rigs was considered unusual, although recent studies have shown this to be

3150-443: The northeast Atlantic, recommend mapping and then closing all of Europe’s deep corals to fishing trawlers. In 1999, the Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries closed an area of 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi) at Sula, including the large reef, to bottom trawling. In 2000, an additional area closed, covering about 600 square kilometres (230 sq mi). An area of about 300 square kilometres (120 sq mi) enclosing

3213-622: The northerly latitudes. It was not until modern times, when crewed mini-submarines first reached sufficient depth, that scientists began to understand these organisms. Pioneering work by Wilson (1979) shed light on a colony on the Porcupine Bank , off Ireland. The first ever live video of a large deep-water coral reef was obtained in July, 1982, when Statoil surveyed a 15 metres (49 ft) tall and 50 metres (160 ft) wide reef perched at 280 metres (920 ft) water depth near Fugløy Island, north of

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3276-407: The northern and southern parts of the coral area, and to a lesser extent east of the coral area. A potential threat towards the Røst Reef that may occur in the future is oil and gas development in the vicinity of the reef. The Røst Reef lies within the so-called "Nordland VI” petroleum block, which is regarded as a promising field by oil and gas companies. No licences were granted in this block during

3339-522: The only species in the genus Lophelia , is a cold-water coral that grows in the deep waters throughout the North Atlantic ocean, as well as parts of the Caribbean Sea and Alboran Sea . Although L. pertusa reefs are home to a diverse community , the species is extremely slow growing and may be harmed by destructive fishing practices, or oil exploration and extraction. Lophelia pertusa

3402-676: The plateau plain. These Lophelia communities lie in unprotected areas of potential oil and gas exploration and cable-laying operations, rendering them vulnerable to future threats. Lophelia exist around the Bay of Biscay, the Canary Islands, Portugal, Madeira, the Azores, and the western basin of the Mediterranean Sea. Among the most researched deep-water coral areas in the United Kingdom are

3465-477: The reef, the seabird colonies at Røstlandet and their feeding ground as well as the important fish spawning grounds between Røst Island and the reef. The Norwegian Nature Conservation Act does not apply beyond territorial waters . It is not possible, therefore, to protect the Røst Reef as a nature reserve . 67°24′59″N 9°58′02″E  /  67.4165°N 9.9673°E  / 67.4165; 9.9673 Lophelia pertusa Lophelia pertusa ,

3528-402: The relative risks of different pressures are being advocated. Bottom trawling and natural causes like bioerosion and episodic die-offs have reduced much of Florida's Oculina Banks to rubble, drastically reducing a once-substantial fishery by destroying spawning grounds. In 1980, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution scientists, such as John Reed, called for protective measures. In 1984,

3591-681: The research vessel Charles Darwin, the Darwin Mounds have been extensively mapped using low-frequency side-scan sonar. They cover an area of approximately 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi) and consist of two main fields—the Darwin Mounds East, with about 75 mounds, and the Darwin Mounds West, with about 150 mounds. Other mounds are scattered in adjacent areas. Each mound is about 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter and 5 metres (16 ft) high. Lophelia corals and coral rubble cover

3654-408: The reserve as an Essential Fish Habitat. In 2000, the deep-water Oculina Marine Protected Area was extended to 1,029 square kilometres (397 sq mi). Scientists recently deployed concrete reef balls in an attempt to provide habitat for fish and coral. Scientists estimate that trawling has damaged or destroyed 30 to 50 percent of the Norwegian shelf coral area. The International Council for

3717-467: The seabed, they undergo metamorphosis , developing into polyps capable of initiating new colonies. Lophelia reefs can grow to 35 m (115 ft) high. The largest recorded Lophelia reef, Røst Reef , measures 3 km × 35 km (1.9 mi × 21.7 mi) and lies at a depth of 300–400 m (980–1,310 ft) off the Lofoten Islands , Norway . These reefs are ancient, with

3780-511: The surrounding seabed . Only a very small portion of the Røst Reef has been inspected. The observations indicate that the reef is largely intact. A significant number of entangled lines and nets were observed on the reef during video inspection. According to information from the Norwegian Directorate of Fisheries, nets and lines are the most common fishing equipment used on and around the Røst Reef. Trawling activities take place both in

3843-442: The water flows. L. pertusa are considered to be opportunistic feeders since they feed on particles of organic matter that have been broken down. Hence, the spring bloom of phytoplankton and subsequent zooplankton blooms provide the main source of nutrient input to the deep sea. This rain of dead plankton is visible on photographs of the seabed and stimulates a seasonal cycle of growth and reproduction in Lophelia . This cycle

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3906-506: The waters off North Carolina may be 40,000 years old, with individual living coral bushes as much as 1,000 years old. The colony grows by budding new polyps, with living ones emerging around the outer edges of deceased coral. Coral colonies reproduce asexually through fragmentation. Each colony is gendered, engaging in sexual reproduction by releasing sperm or oocytes into the sea. The larvae, which do not feed but rely on their yolk reserves, drift with plankton for weeks. Upon settling on

3969-575: Was closed off. Then, in 2002, an area of approximately 300 square kilometers (120 sq mi) surrounding the Røst Reef was also designated as closed off. The European Commission introduced an interim trawling ban in the Darwin Mounds area, in August 2003, followed by a permanent closure to bottom trawling in March 2004. The European Commission designated the area as a Site of Community Importance in December 2009, and

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