128-507: René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur ( French: [ʁeomyʁ] ; 28 February 1683, La Rochelle – 17 October 1757, Saint-Julien-du-Terroux ) was a French entomologist and writer who contributed to many different fields, especially the study of insects . He introduced the Réaumur temperature scale . Réaumur was born in a prominent La Rochelle family and educated in Paris. He learned philosophy in
256-554: A gastrula or even a blastula stage. New larvae can develop from the preoral hood (a mound like structure above the mouth), the side body wall, the postero-lateral arms, or their rear ends. Cloning is costly to the larva both in resources and in development time. Larvae undergo this process when food is plentiful or temperature conditions are optimal. Cloning may occur to make use of the tissues that are normally lost during metamorphosis. The larvae of some sand dollars clone themselves when they detect dissolved fish mucus, indicating
384-684: A seaport on the Bay of Biscay , a part of the Atlantic Ocean . It is the capital of the Charente-Maritime department . With 78,535 inhabitants in 2021, La Rochelle is the most populated commune in the department and ranks fourth in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region after Bordeaux , the regional capital, Limoges and Poitiers . Situated on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean the city is connected to
512-427: A yolk-feeding larva. The provision of a yolk-sac means that smaller numbers of eggs are produced, the larvae have a shorter development period and a smaller dispersal potential, but a greater chance of survival. Echinoderms are globally distributed in almost all depths, latitudes and environments in the ocean. Adults are mainly benthic , living on the seabed, whereas larvae are often pelagic , living as plankton in
640-588: A British fleet defeated the French Atlantic Fleet. La Rochelle became one of the French centres for faience at the end of the 18th century. Bernard Palissy was born in the region and had some bearing in this development. During the 18th century, its style was greatly influenced by Chinese themes and Japanese Kakiemon -type designs. Many of these ceramics can be viewed at the Musée d'Orbigny-Bernon . In 1864,
768-621: A century hardly a year passed in which the Mémoires de l'Académie did not contain at least one paper by Réaumur. At first, his attention was occupied by mathematical studies, especially in geometry . In 1710, he was named the chief editor of the Descriptions of the Arts and Trades , a major government project which resulted in the establishment of manufactures new to France and the revival of neglected industries. For discoveries regarding iron and steel he
896-433: A co-ordinated way, propelled by the other four arms. During locomotion, the propelling arms can made either snake-like or rowing movements. Starfish move using their tube feet, keeping their arms almost still, including in genera like Pycnopodia where the arms are flexible. The oral surface is covered with thousands of tube feet which move out of time with each other, but not in a metachronal rhythm ; in some way, however,
1024-403: A defensive mechanism when attacked. Echinoderms possess a unique water vascular system, a network of fluid-filled canals modified from the coelom (body cavity) that function in gas exchange, feeding, sensory reception and locomotion. This system varies between different classes of echinoderm but typically opens to the exterior through a sieve-like madreporite on the aboral (upper) surface of
1152-416: A harbour was a consequence of the victory of Duke Guillaume X of Aquitaine over Isambert de Châtelaillon in 1130, and the subsequent destruction of his harbour of Châtelaillon . In 1137, Guillaume X to all intents and purposes made La Rochelle a free port and gave it the right to identify as a commune . Fifty years later Eleanor of Aquitaine upheld the communal charter promulgated by her father. For
1280-459: A horse, which led to his death. He bequeathed his manuscripts, which filled 138 portfolios, and his natural history collections to the Académie des Sciences. Réaumur's scientific papers deal with many branches of science. His first, in 1708, was on a general problem in geometry. His last, in 1756, on the forms of birds' nests. He proved experimentally the fact that the strength of a rope is more than
1408-474: A large stomach and a rectum with the anus at the apex of the test. Sea cucumbers are mostly detritivores , sorting through the sediment with modified tube feet around their mouth, the buccal tentacles. Sand and mud accompanies their food through their simple gut, which has a long coiled intestine and a large cloaca . Crinoids are suspension feeders , passively catching plankton which drift into their outstretched arms. Boluses of mucus-trapped food are passed to
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#17328581125091536-620: A little in front of the midpoint. The two halves each regenerate their missing organs over a period of several months, but the missing genital organs are often very slow to develop. The larvae of some echinoderms are capable of asexual reproduction. This has long been known to occur among starfish and brittle stars, but has more recently been observed in a sea cucumber, a sand dollar and a sea urchin. This may be by autotomising parts that develop into secondary larvae, by budding , or by splitting transversely . Autotomised parts or buds may develop directly into fully formed larvae, or may pass through
1664-478: A main line of defence against potential pathogens. Depending on the class, echinoderms may have spherule cells (for cytotoxicity, inflammation, and anti-bacterial activity), vibratile cells (for coelomic fluid movement and clotting), and crystal cells (which may serve for osmoregulation in sea cucumbers). The coelomocytes secrete antimicrobial peptides against bacteria, and have a set of lectins and complement proteins as part of an innate immune system that
1792-430: A pore (or a pair of pores in sea urchins) to the exterior, forming a podium or tube foot . The water vascular system assists with the distribution of nutrients throughout the animal's body; it is most visible in the tube feet which can be extended or contracted by the redistribution of fluid between the foot and the internal ampulla. The organisation of the water vascular system is somewhat different in ophiuroids, where
1920-463: A predominantly administrative and tertiary sector that is reinforced by the university and a rapidly developing tourism industry. In the early 21st century, the city has consistently been ranked among France's most liveable cities. Until 2015, the town was part of the administrative region called Poitou-Charentes , that was before the delimitation of regions in France. The Romans subsequently occupied
2048-449: A sea urchin has an 'echinopluteus' larva while a brittle star has an 'ophiopluteus' larva. A starfish has a ' bipinnaria ' larva, which develops into a multi-armed ' brachiolaria ' larva. A sea cucumber's larva is an 'auricularia' while a crinoid's is a 'vitellaria'. All these larvae are bilaterally symmetrical and have bands of cilia with which they swim; some, usually known as 'pluteus' larvae, have arms. When fully developed they settle on
2176-541: A sea urchin is overturned, it can extend its tube feet in one ambulacral area far enough to bring them within reach of the substrate and then successively attach feet from the adjoining area until it is righted. Some species bore into rock, usually by grinding away at the surface with their mouthparts. Sea cucumbers are generally sluggish animals. Many can move on the surface of the seabed or burrow through sand or mud using peristaltic movements; some have short tube feet on their under surface with which they can creep along in
2304-538: A sudden encirclement by their flexible arms. The limbs then bend under the disc to transfer the food to the jaws and mouth. Many sea urchins feed on algae, often scraping off the thin layer of algae covering the surfaces of rocks with their specialised mouthparts known as Aristotle's lantern. Other species devour smaller organisms, which they may catch with their tube feet. They may also feed on dead fish and other animal matter. Sand dollars may perform suspension feeding and feed on phytoplankton , detritus, algal pieces and
2432-459: A tip shaped like a suction pad in which a vacuum can be created by contraction of muscles. This combines with some stickiness from the secretion of mucus to provide adhesion. The tube feet contract and relax in waves which move along the adherent surface, and the animal moves slowly along. Brittle stars are the most agile of the echinoderms. Any one of the arms can form the axis of symmetry, pointing either forwards or back. The animal then moves in
2560-628: A very Learned and usefull book wrote in French entitled 'The Art of Converting Forged Iron into Steel' and 'the Art of Soft'ning Cast Iron' printed at Paris 1722 4to and lately by his 'Curious Memoires relating to the History of Insects' at Paris in 4to three Volumes of which work have been Laid before the Royal Society. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1748. He
2688-543: A very small number of species, the eggs are retained in the coelom where they develop viviparously , later emerging through ruptures in the body wall. In some crinoids, the embryos develop in special breeding bags, where the eggs are held until sperm released by a male happens to find them. One species of seastar , Ophidiaster granifer , reproduces asexually by parthenogenesis . In certain other asterozoans , adults reproduce asexually until they mature, then reproduce sexually. In most of these species, asexual reproduction
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#17328581125092816-446: Is a special kind of tissue known as catch connective tissue . This collagen -based material can change its mechanical properties under nervous control rather than by muscular means. This tissue enables a starfish to go from moving flexibly around the seabed to becoming rigid while prying open a bivalve mollusc or preventing itself from being extracted from a crevice. Similarly, sea urchins can lock their normally mobile spines upright as
2944-419: Is accessible via a bridge from La Rochelle. La Rochelle and its region are served by the international La Rochelle - Île de Ré Airport , which has progressively developed over the last 5 years. The train station Gare de La Rochelle offers connections to Bordeaux, Nantes, Poitiers, Paris and several regional destinations. OFP La Rochelle is a freight railway serving the port. La Rochelle launched one of
3072-428: Is any animal of the phylum Echinodermata ( / ɪ ˌ k aɪ n oʊ ˈ d ɜːr m ə t ə / ), which includes starfish , brittle stars , sea urchins , sand dollars and sea cucumbers , as well as the sessile sea lilies or "stone lilies". While bilaterally symmetrical as larvae , as adults echinoderms are recognisable by their usually five-pointed radial symmetry (pentamerous symmetry), and are found on
3200-416: Is by transverse fission with the disc splitting in two. Both the lost disc area and the missing arms regrow, so an individual may have arms of varying lengths. During the period of regrowth, they have a few tiny arms and one large arm, and are thus often known as "comets". Adult sea cucumbers reproduce asexually by transverse fission. Holothuria parvula uses this method frequently, splitting into two
3328-517: Is commemorated in numerous place names including the rue Réaumur and the Réaumur - Sébastopol metro station in Paris and the Place Réaumur, Le Havre. La Rochelle La Rochelle ( UK : / ˌ l æ r ɒ ˈ ʃ ɛ l / , US : / ˌ l ɑː r oʊ ˈ ʃ ɛ l / , French: [la ʁɔʃɛl] ; Poitevin-Saintongeais : La Rochéle ) is a city on the west coast of France and
3456-480: Is equipped with oil unloading equipment, and mainly handles tropical wood . It is also the location of the fishing fleet, which was moved from the old harbour in the centre of the city during the 1980s. La Rochelle has a very big aquarium , and a small botanical garden (the Jardin des plantes de La Rochelle ). The Calypso , the ship used by Jacques-Yves Cousteau as a mobile laboratory for oceanography, and which
3584-496: Is especially common in cold water species where planktonic larvae might not be able to find sufficient food. These retained eggs are usually few in number and are supplied with large yolks to nourish the developing embryos. In starfish, the female may carry the eggs in special pouches, under her arms, under her arched body, or even in her cardiac stomach. Many brittle stars are hermaphrodites; they often brood their eggs, usually in special chambers on their oral surfaces, but sometimes in
3712-426: Is limited to bending (their stems can bend) and rolling and unrolling their arms; a few species can relocate themselves on the seabed by crawling. The sea feathers are unattached and usually live in crevices, under corals or inside sponges with their arms the only visible part. Some sea feathers emerge at night and perch themselves on nearby eminences to better exploit food-bearing currents. Many species can "walk" across
3840-402: Is no true heart , and the blood often lacks any respiratory pigment. Gaseous exchange occurs via dermal branchiae or papulae in starfish, genital bursae in brittle stars, peristominal gills in sea urchins and cloacal trees in sea cucumbers. Exchange of gases also takes place through the tube feet. Echinoderms lack specialized excretory (waste disposal) organs and so nitrogenous waste , chiefly in
3968-441: Is still being characterised. Echinoderms have a simple radial nervous system that consists of a modified nerve net of interconnected neurons with no central brain , although some do possess ganglia . Nerves radiate from central rings around the mouth into each arm or along the body wall; the branches of these nerves coordinate the movements of the organism and the synchronisation of the tube feet. Starfish have sensory cells in
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4096-482: Is synchronised in some species, usually with regard to the lunar cycle. In other species, individuals may aggregate during the reproductive season, increasing the likelihood of successful fertilisation. Internal fertilisation has been observed in three species of sea star, three brittle stars and a deep-water sea cucumber. Even at abyssal depths , where no light penetrates, echinoderms often synchronise their reproductive activity. Some echinoderms brood their eggs . This
4224-555: Is the biggest in Europe, and has a long boat-building past, which today includes companies such as Amel Yachts . The bedrock of La Rochelle and surrounding areas is composed of layers of limestone dating back to the Sequanian stage (upper Oxfordian stage ) of the Jurassic period (circa 160 million years ago), when a large part of France was submerged. Many of these layers are visible in
4352-775: The Sea Beggars were able to raid Spanish shipping. In 1571 the city of La Rochelle suffered a naval blockade by the French Navy under the command of Filippo di Piero Strozzi and Antoine Escalin des Aimars , a former protagonist of the Franco-Ottoman alliance . The city was finally besieged during the siege of La Rochelle (1572–1573) during the French Wars of Religion , following the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in August 1572, and occurred at
4480-609: The Gallo-Roman period , attested by the remains of important salt marshes and villas. The Dukes of Aquitaine granted it a charter as a free port in 1130. With the opening of the English market following the second marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, the presence of the Knights Templar and the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem quickly made this small town the largest port on
4608-691: The Huguenots , and the city declared itself an independent Reformed Republic on the model of Geneva . During the subsequent period, La Rochelle became an entity that has been described as a " state within a state ". This led to numerous conflicts with the Catholic central government. The city supported the Protestant movement of William of Orange in the Netherlands, and from La Rochelle the Dutch under Louis of Nassau and
4736-542: The Jesuits' college at Poitiers , and in 1699 went to Bourges to study civil law and mathematics under the charge of an uncle, canon of La Sainte-Chapelle . In 1703 he went to Paris , where he continued the study of mathematics and physics . In 1708, at the age of 24, he was nominated by Pierre Varignon (who taught him mathematics) and elected a member of the Académie des Sciences . From this time onwards for nearly half
4864-629: The Seven Years' War , the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars . During that period France lost many of the territorial possessions which it had had in the New World, and also saw a significant decrease in its sea power in the continuing conflicts with Britain, ultimately diminishing the role of such harbours as La Rochelle. After abolitionist movements led by such people as Samuel de Missy ,
4992-553: The crown-of-thorns starfish are long and sharp and can cause a painful puncture wound as the epithelium covering them contains a toxin. Because of their catch connective tissue, which can change rapidly from a flaccid to a rigid state, echinoderms are very difficult to dislodge from crevices. Some sea cucumbers have a cluster of cuvierian tubules which can be ejected as long sticky threads from their anus to entangle and permanently disable an attacker. Sea cucumbers occasionally defend themselves by rupturing their body wall and discharging
5120-760: The order Apodida have a single statocyst adjoining each radial nerve, and some have an eyespot at the base of each tentacle. The gonads at least periodically occupy much of the body cavities of sea urchins and sea cucumbers, while the less voluminous crinoids, brittle stars and starfish have two gonads in each arm. While the ancestors of modern echinoderms are believed to have had one genital aperture, many organisms have multiple gonopores through which eggs or sperm may be released. Many echinoderms have great powers of regeneration . Many species routinely autotomize and regenerate arms and viscera . Sea cucumbers often discharge parts of their internal organs if they perceive themselves to be threatened, regenerating them over
5248-426: The sea-lily Comaster schlegelii has two hundred. Genetic studies have shown that genes directing anterior-most development are expressed along ambulacra in the center of starfish rays, with the next-most-anterior genes expressed in the surrounding fringe of tube feet. Genes related to the beginning of the trunk are expressed at the ray margins, but trunk genes are only expressed in interior tissue rather than on
René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur - Misplaced Pages Continue
5376-507: The Île d'Aix and Fort Boyard (home to the TV show of the same name). Nearby Île de Ré is a short drive to the North. The countryside of the surrounding Charente-Maritime is very rural and full of history ( Saintes ). To the North is Venise Verte , a marshy area of country, crisscrossed with tiny canals and a resort for inland boating. Inland is the country of Cognac and Pineau . The nearby Île de Ré
5504-566: The Île de Ré by a 2.9-kilometre-long ( 1 + 3 ⁄ 4 -mile) bridge completed on 19 May 1988. Since the Middle Ages the harbour has opened onto a protected strait, the Pertuis d'Antioche and is regarded as a "Door océane" or gateway to the ocean because of the presence of its three ports (fishing, trade and yachting). The city has a strong commercial tradition, having an active port from very early on in its history. The city traces its origins to
5632-453: The "Vieux Port" ("Old Harbour"), which is at the heart of the city, picturesque and lined with seafood restaurants. The city walls are open to an evening promenade. The old town has been well preserved. Three medieval towers are a prominent tourist attraction at the entrance to the harbor: The Chain Tower , The Lantern Tower and Saint Nicolas Tower . From the harbour, boating trips can be taken to
5760-602: The 1224 siege of La Rochelle . During the Plantagenet control of the city in 1185, Henry II had the Vauclair castle built, remains of which are still visible in the Place de Verdun. The main activities of the city were in the areas of maritime commerce and trade, especially with England, the Netherlands and Spain. In 1196, wealthy bourgeois Alexandre Auffredi sent a fleet of seven ships to Africa seeking wealth. He went bankrupt awaiting
5888-538: The 1293 sacking of La Rochelle by the Bayonnais during an outbreak of reciprocal piracy between English and French (particularly Norman ) sailors was one of the main charges of King Philip IV against King Edward I when he declared the Duchy of Aquitaine forfeit to the French crown, prompting the 1294–1303 Gascon War whose peace terms produced the marriage that led to Edward III 's later claims to
6016-598: The Asteroidea ( starfish , with some 1,745 species), Ophiuroidea ( brittle stars , with around 2,300 species), Echinoidea ( sea urchins and sand dollars , with some 900 species), Holothuroidea ( sea cucumbers , with about 1,430 species), and Crinoidea ( feather stars and sea lilies , with around 580 species). Echinoderms evolved from animals with bilateral symmetry . Although adult echinoderms possess pentaradial symmetry, their larvae are ciliated , free-swimming organisms with bilateral symmetry. Later, during metamorphosis,
6144-582: The Atlantic. To this day, the city still possesses a rich historical fabric, including the Saint-Nicholas tower , and an urban heritage. The capital of Aunis , it has become the most important coastal city between the Loire and Gironde estuaries. La Rochelle's urban activities are many in number and strongly differentiated, being a city with port and industrial functions that are still important, but also including
6272-709: The Calvinists attempted to colonise the New World to find a new home for their religion, with the likes of Pierre Richier and Jean de Léry . After the short-lived attempt of France Antarctique , they failed to establish a colony in Brazil, and finally resolved to make a stand in La Rochelle itself. Pierre Richier became "Ministre de l'église de la Rochelle" ("Minister of the Church of La Rochelle") when he returned from Brazil in 1558, and
6400-602: The French crown. Following the Treaty of Brétigny during the Hundred Years' War , La Rochelle again came under the rule of the English monarch in 1360. La Rochelle however expelled the English in June 1372, following the naval Battle of La Rochelle , between Castilian-French and English fleets. The French and Spanish decisively defeated the English, securing French control of the Channel for
6528-617: The Huguenots culminated with the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV in 1685. Many Huguenots emigrated, founding such cities as New Rochelle in the vicinity of today's New York in 1689. La Rochelle, and the siege of 1627 form much of the backdrop to the later chapters of Alexandre Dumas, père 's classic novel, The Three Musketeers . Because of its western location, which saved days of sailing time, La Rochelle enjoyed successful fishing in
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#17328581125096656-730: The ITIS rules should result in attributing "Klein, 1778" due to a 2nd edition of his work published by Leske in that year. While Echinodermata has been in common use since the mid-1800s, several other names had been proposed. Notably, F. A. Bather called the phylum "Echinoderma" (apparently after Latreille , 1825 ) in his 1900 treatise on the phylum, but this name now refers to a fungus . There are about 7,600 extant species of echinoderm as well as about 13,000 extinct species. All echinoderms are marine , but they are found in habitats ranging from shallow intertidal areas to abyssal depths. Five extant classes of echinoderms are generally recognized:
6784-623: The Mediterranean. A popular thread of conspiracy theory originating with Holy Blood, Holy Grail has it that the Templars used a fleet of 18 ships which had brought Jacques de Molay from Cyprus to La Rochelle to escape arrest in France. The fleet allegedly left laden with knights and treasures just before the issue of the warrant for the arrest of the Order in October 1307. Royal property since 1271,
6912-421: The animal. The madreporite is linked to a slender duct, the stone canal, which extends to a ring canal that encircles the mouth or oesophagus . The ring canal branches into a set of radial canals, which in asteroids extend along the arms, and in echinoids adjoin the test in the ambulacral areas. Short lateral canals branch off the radial canals, each one ending in an ampulla. Part of the ampulla can protrude through
7040-597: The anus located in the centre of the aboral body surface. With a few exceptions, the members of the order Paxillosida do not possess an anus. In many species of starfish, the large cardiac stomach can be everted to digest food outside the body. Some other species are able to ingest whole food items such as molluscs . Brittle stars, which have varying diets, have a blind gut with no intestine or anus; they expel food waste through their mouth. Sea urchins are herbivores and use their specialised mouthparts to graze, tear and chew their food, mainly algae . They have an oesophagus,
7168-426: The area, where they developed salt production along the coast. Roman villas have been found at Saint-Éloi and at Les Minimes . Salt evaporation ponds dating from the same period have also been found. The name was first recorded in 961 as Rupella , from a Latin diminutive meaning 'little rock'. It was later known as Rocella and Roscella before the name took on its current form. The establishment of La Rochelle as
7296-537: The arms of sea stars, brittle stars and crinoids. The ossicles may bear external projections in the form of spines, granules or warts and they are supported by a tough epidermis . Skeletal elements are sometimes deployed in specialized ways, such as the chewing organ called " Aristotle's lantern " in sea urchins, the supportive stalks of crinoids, and the structural "lime ring" of sea cucumbers. Although individual ossicles are robust and fossilize readily, complete skeletons of starfish, brittle stars and crinoids are rare in
7424-503: The authority of the adult Louis, beginning with a 1622 revolt . A fleet from La Rochelle fought a royal fleet of 35 ships under Charles, Duke of Guise , in front of Saint-Martin-de-Ré , but was defeated on 27 October 1622, leading to the signing of the Peace of Montpellier . In 1625, a new Huguenot revolt led by Duke Henri de Rohan and his brother Soubise led to the Capture of Ré island by
7552-485: The bacterial layer surrounding grains of sand. Sea cucumbers are often mobile deposit or suspension feeders, using their buccal podia to actively capture food and then stuffing the particles individually into their buccal cavities. Others ingest large quantities of sediment, absorb the organic matter and pass the indigestible mineral particles through their guts. In this way they disturb and process large volumes of substrate, often leaving characteristic ridges of sediment on
7680-420: The biotic desert of the deep sea , as well as shallower oceans . Most echinoderms are able to reproduce asexually and regenerate tissue, organs and limbs; in some cases, they can undergo complete regeneration from a single limb. Geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their ossified dermal endoskeletons , which are major contributors to many limestone formations and can provide valuable clues as to
7808-448: The body surface. This means that a starfish body can more-or-less be considered to consist only of a head. Echinoderms have a mesodermal skeleton in the dermis, composed of calcite -based plates known as ossicles . If solid, these would form a heavy skeleton, so they have a sponge-like porous structure known as stereom. Ossicles may be fused together, as in the test of sea urchins, or may articulate to form flexible joints as in
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#17328581125097936-489: The brittle stars, six-armed species such as Ophiothela danae , Ophiactis savignyi , and Ophionotus hexactis exist, and Ophiacantha vivipara often has more than six. Echinoderms have secondary radial symmetry in portions of their body at some stage of life, most likely an adaptation to a sessile or slow-moving existence. Many crinoids and some seastars are symmetrical in multiples of the basic five; starfish such as Labidiaster annulatus possess up to fifty arms, while
8064-470: The city for 14 months, until the city surrendered and lost its mayor and its privileges. The remaining Protestants of La Rochelle suffered new persecutions, when 300 families were again expelled in November 1661, the year Louis XIV came to power. The reason for the expulsions was that Catholics deeply resented a degree of revival of Protestant ownership of property within the city. The growing persecution of
8192-791: The city. La Rochelle was also the port city from which the Carignan-Salieres Regiment departed for Nouvelle France. In 1664, based upon attacks by the Iroquois against the Quebec inhabitants and following the request of the New France Sovereign Council, the French finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert ordered the 24 companies composing the Carignan-Salières Regiment to duty in New France. Beginning with departures from
8320-561: The coast of Morocco to conquer the Canary Islands . Until the 15th century, La Rochelle was to be the largest French harbour on the Atlantic coast, dealing mainly in wine, salt and cheese. During the Renaissance , La Rochelle adopted Protestant ideas. Calvinism started to be propagated in the region of La Rochelle, resulting in its suppression through the establishment of Cours présidiaux tribunals by Henry II . An early result of this
8448-417: The course of several months. Sea urchins constantly replace spines lost through damage, while sea stars and sea lilies readily lose and regenerate their arms. In most cases, a single severed arm cannot grow into a new starfish in the absence of at least part of the disc. However, in a few species a single arm can survive and develop into a complete individual, and arms are sometimes intentionally detached for
8576-402: The digestion of carnivorous and graminivorous (grass-eating) birds. One of his greatest works is the Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des insectes , 6 vols., with 267 plates (Amsterdam, 1734–1742). It describes the appearance, habits and locality of all the known insects except the beetles, and is a marvel of patient and accurate observation. Among other important facts stated in this work are
8704-399: The ecological roles of adults are the grazing of sea urchins, the sediment processing of heart urchins, and the suspension and deposit feeding of crinoids and sea cucumbers. Some sea urchins can bore into solid rock, destabilising rock faces and releasing nutrients into the ocean. Coral reefs are also bored into in this way, but the rate of accretion of carbonate material is often greater than
8832-451: The epithelium and have simple eyespots and touch-sensitive tentacle-like tube feet at the tips of their arms. Sea urchins have no particular sense organs but do have statocysts that assist in gravitational orientation, and they too have sensory cells in their epidermis, particularly in the tube feet, spines and pedicellariae . Brittle stars, crinoids and sea cucumbers in general do not have sensory organs, but some burrowing sea cucumbers of
8960-609: The estimated 768 women known as the Filles du Roi (Daughters of the King), set sail for Quebec during the period of 1663 to 1673. Robert de La Salle departed from La Rochelle, France, on 24 July 1684, with the aim of setting up a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi , eventually establishing Fort Saint Louis in Texas. The city eventually lost its trade and prominence during the decades spanning
9088-565: The experiments which enabled Réaumur to prove the correctness of Peyssonel's hypothesis , that corals are animals and not plants. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in November 1738 by virtue of the fact that: His Name hath been known for many years among the Learned by Several Curious disertations published in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris & in particular by
9216-455: The festival, from around 1998, took place in Saint-Tropez , before moving to La Rochelle in around 2013 or 2014. One of the biggest music festivals in France, Les Francofolies de La Rochelle , takes place each summer in La Rochelle, where Francophone musicians come together for a week of concerts and celebration. 2004 marked the 20th anniversary of this event. La Rochelle's main feature is
9344-555: The first priority of the kingdom. The English came to the support of La Rochelle, starting the Anglo-French War , by sending a major expedition under the Duke of Buckingham . The expedition however ended in a fiasco for England with the siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré . Meanwhile, cannon shots were exchanged on 10 September 1627 between La Rochelle and Royal troops. This resulted in the siege of La Rochelle in which Cardinal Richelieu blockaded
9472-490: The first successful bicycle sharing systems in 1974. The original university in La Rochelle was University Institutes of Technology , established in 1968. Then, University of La Rochelle was incorporated to the technology institute in 1993. And, the second university in the city is the Excelia Group (La Rochelle Business School), which was established in 1988. The city has more than 10,000 students each year. they are
9600-407: The first time in France, a city mayor was appointed for La Rochelle, Guillaume de Montmirail . Guillaume was assisted in his responsibilities by 24 municipal magistrates, and 75 nobles who had jurisdiction over the inhabitants. Eleanor married Henry Plantagenet in 1152, who became king of England as Henry II in 1154, thus putting La Rochelle under Plantagenet rule, until Louis VIII captured it in
9728-497: The first time since the Battle of Sluys in 1340. The naval battle of La Rochelle was one of the first cases of the use of handguns on warships, which were deployed by the French and Spanish against the English. Having recovered freedom, La Rochelle refused entry to Du Guesclin , until Charles V recognized the privileges of the city in November 1372. In 1402, the French adventurer Jean de Béthencourt left La Rochelle and sailed along
9856-456: The forces of Louis XIII. Soubise conquered large parts of the Atlantic coast, but the supporting fleet of La Rochelle was finally defeated by Montmorency , as was Soubise with 3,000 when he led a counter-attack against the royal troops who had landed on the island of Ré. Following these events, Louis XIII and his Chief Minister Cardinal Richelieu declared the suppression of the Huguenot revolt
9984-447: The form of ammonia , diffuses out through the respiratory surfaces. The coelomic fluid contains the coelomocytes , or immune cells. There are several types of immune cells, which vary among classes and species. All classes possess a type of phagocytic amebocyte, which engulf invading particles and infected cells, aggregate or clot, and may be involved in cytotoxicity . These cells are usually large and granular, and are believed to be
10112-441: The fossil record. On the other hand, sea urchins are often well preserved in chalk beds or limestone. During fossilization, the cavities in the stereom are filled in with calcite that is continuous with the surrounding rock. On fracturing such rock, paleontologists can observe distinctive cleavage patterns and sometimes even the intricate internal and external structure of the test. The epidermis contains pigment cells that provide
10240-513: The freezing- and boiling-points of water are named Réaumur thermometers but diverge from his design and intention. Réaumur wrote much on natural history. Early in life he described the locomotor system of the Echinodermata , and showed that the supposed ability of replacing their lost limbs was actually true. He has been considered as a founder of ethology . In 1710 he wrote a paper on the possibility of spiders being used to produce silk, which
10368-482: The geological environment. They were the most used species in regenerative research in the 19th and 20th centuries. Further, some scientists hold that the radiation of echinoderms was responsible for the Mesozoic Marine Revolution . The name echinoderm is from Ancient Greek ἐχῖνος ( ekhînos ) 'hedgehog' and δέρμα ( dérma ) 'skin'. The name Echinodermata
10496-416: The great quantity of eggs and larva that they produce form part of the zooplankton , consumed by many marine creatures. Crinoids, on the other hand, are relatively free from predation. Antipredator defences include the presence of spines, toxins (inherent or delivered through the tube feet), and the discharge of sticky entangling threads by sea cucumbers. Although most echinoderm spines are blunt, those of
10624-399: The gut and internal organs. Starfish and brittle stars may undergo autotomy when attacked, detaching an arm; this may distract the predator for long enough for the animal to escape. Some starfish species can swim away from danger. Echinoderms are numerous invertebrates whose adults play an important role in benthic ecosystems , while the larvae are a major component of the plankton. Among
10752-530: The harbour of La Rochelle (area of the "Bassin à flot" behind the water locks), was the site for the maiden dive experiments of the first mechanically-powered submarine in the World, Plongeur , commanded by Marie-Joseph-Camille Doré , a native of La Rochelle. During the Second World War, Germany established a submarine naval base at La Pallice (the main port of La Rochelle). A German stronghold, La Rochelle
10880-465: The largest institutions of higher education of La Rochelle (7,000 and 3,500 students respectively). Located in La Rochelle is Les Minimes, a marina considered the city's new port for around 5,000 boat vessels. The newly built area also houses university campuses for 10,000 students, which has shops, restaurants, a cinema, and other amenities. There are many residences in a student village, which are accommodation for locals, students or tourists. The port
11008-512: The left side of the body grows at the expense of the right side, which is eventually absorbed. The left side then grows in a pentaradially symmetric fashion, in which the body is arranged in five parts around a central axis. Within the Asterozoa , there can be a few exceptions from the rule. Most starfish in the genus Leptasterias have six arms, although five-armed individuals can occur. The Brisingida also contain some six-armed species. Amongst
11136-452: The madreporite may be on the oral surface and the podia lack suckers. In holothuroids, the system is reduced, often with few tube feet other than the specialised feeding tentacles, and the madreporite opens on to the coelom. Some holothuroids like the Apodida lack tube feet and canals along the body; others have longitudinal canals. The arrangement in crinoids is similar to that in asteroids, but
11264-567: The main building material throughout the region. The area of La Pointe du Chay about five kilometres (three miles) from La Rochelle is a cliff area visited for leisurely geological surveys. Under Köppen's climate classification , La Rochelle features an oceanic climate . Although at the same latitude as Montreal in Canada or the Kuril Islands in Russia, the area experiences mild weather throughout
11392-774: The majority of starfish are active hunters. Crinoids catch food particles using the tube feet on their outspread pinnules, move them into the ambulacral grooves, wrap them in mucus, and convey them to the mouth using the cilia lining the grooves. The exact dietary requirements of crinoids have been little researched, but in the laboratory, they can be fed with diatoms. Basket stars are suspension feeders, raising their branched arms to collect zooplankton , while other brittle stars use several methods of feeding. Some are suspension feeders, securing food particles with mucus strands, spines or tube feet on their raised arms. Others are scavengers and detritus feeders. Others again are voracious carnivores and able to lasso their waterborne prey with
11520-478: The manner of a starfish. Some species drag themselves along using their buccal tentacles, while others manage to swim with peristaltic movements or rhythmic flexing. Many live in cracks, hollows and burrows and hardly move at all. Some deep-water species are pelagic and can float in the water with webbed papillae forming sails or fins. The majority of crinoids are motile, but sea lilies are sessile and attached to hard substrates by stalks. Movement in most sea lilies
11648-536: The mouth, which is linked to the anus by a loop consisting of a short oesophagus and longer intestine. The coelomic cavities of echinoderms are complex. Aside from the water vascular system, echinoderms have a haemal coelom , a peri visceral coelom, a gonadal coelom and often also a perihaemal coelom. During development, echinoderm coelom is divided into the metacoel, mesocoel and protocoel (also called somatocoel, hydrocoel and axocoel, respectively). The water vascular system, haemal system and perihaemal system form
11776-536: The movement and remodelling of existing tissues to replace lost parts. Direct transdifferentiation of one type of tissue to another during tissue replacement is also observed. Echinoderms become sexually mature after approximately two to three years, depending on the species and the environmental conditions. Almost all species have separate male and female sexes , though some are hermaphroditic . The eggs and sperm cells are typically released into open water, where fertilisation takes place. The release of sperm and eggs
11904-459: The often vivid colours of echinoderms, which include deep red, stripes of black and white, and intense purple. These cells may be light-sensitive, causing many echinoderms to change appearance completely as night falls. The reaction can happen quickly: the sea urchin Centrostephanus longispinus changes colour in just fifty minutes when exposed to light. One characteristic of most echinoderms
12032-526: The open ocean. Some holothuroid adults such as Pelagothuria are however pelagic. Some crinoids are pseudo-planktonic, attaching themselves to floating logs and debris, although this behaviour was exercised most extensively in the Paleozoic, before competition from organisms such as barnacles restricted the extent of the behaviour. Echinoderms primarily use their tube feet to move about, though some sea urchins also use their spines. The tube feet typically have
12160-424: The ovary or coelom. In these starfish and brittle stars, development is usually direct to the adult form, without passing through a bilateral larval stage. A few sea urchins and one species of sand dollar carry their eggs in cavities, or near their anus, holding them in place with their spines. Some sea cucumbers use their buccal tentacles to transfer their eggs to their underside or back, where they are retained. In
12288-531: The port of La Rochelle, France on 19 Apr 1665, five troop ships and one supply ship left the French coast. A sixth troop ship, Le Breze, began the journey from the Antilles island in the West Indies. All of the seven ships arrived at Quebec City during the three-month period between 19 Jun 1665 and 14 Sep 1665. They carried approximately 1,200 men of the regiment. Additionally, it was from this port city that many of
12416-425: The presence of predators. Asexual reproduction produces many smaller larvae that escape better from planktivorous fish, implying that the mechanism may be an anti-predator adaptation. Development begins with a bilaterally symmetrical embryo, with a coeloblastula developing first. Gastrulation marks the opening of the "second mouth" that places echinoderms within the deuterostomes, and the mesoderm, which will host
12544-459: The purpose of asexual reproduction . During periods when they have lost their digestive tracts, sea cucumbers live off stored nutrients and absorb dissolved organic matter directly from the water. The regeneration of lost parts involves both epimorphosis and morphallaxis . In epimorphosis stem cells—either from a reserve pool or those produced by dedifferentiation —form a blastema and generate new tissues. Morphallactic regeneration involves
12672-414: The rate of growth of insect populations and noted that there must be natural checks since the theoretical population numbers achievable by geometric progression were not matched by observations of actual populations. He also studied botanical and agricultural matters, and devised processes for preserving birds and eggs. He elaborated a system of artificial incubation , and made important observations on
12800-454: The return of his ships; they returned seven years later bearing riches. The Knights Templar had a strong presence in La Rochelle since before the time of Eleanor of Aquitaine , who exempted them from duties and gave them mills in her 1139 Charter. La Rochelle was the Templars' largest base on the Atlantic Ocean, and where they stationed their main fleet. From La Rochelle, they were able to act as intermediaries in trade between England and
12928-460: The royal and military Order of Saint Louis . He discharged his duties with scrupulous attention, but refused the pay. He took great delight in the systematic study of natural history. His friends often called him "the Pliny of the 18th century". He loved retirement and lived at his country residences, including his chateau La Bermondière, Saint-Julien-du-Terroux , Maine, where he had a serious fall from
13056-449: The same time as other sieges of Protestant cities such as the siege of Sancerre . The conflict ended with the 1573 Peace of La Rochelle , which restricted the Protestant worship to the three cities of Montauban , Nîmes and La Rochelle. Pierre Richier died in La Rochelle in 1580. Under Henry IV, and under the regency of his son Louis XIII , the city enjoyed a certain freedom and prosperity. However, La Rochelle entered into conflict with
13184-507: The sea bed at every ocean depth from the intertidal zone to the abyssal zone . The phylum contains about 7,600 living species , making it the second-largest group of deuterostomes after the chordates , as well as the largest marine-only phylum. The first definitive echinoderms appeared near the start of the Cambrian . The echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically. Ecologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in
13312-449: The seabed to undergo metamorphosis, and the larval arms and gut degenerate. The left-hand side of the larva develops into the oral surface of the juvenile, while the right side becomes the aboral surface. At this stage the pentaradial symmetry develops. A plankton-eating larva, living and feeding in the water column, is considered to be the ancestral larval type for echinoderms, but in extant echinoderms, some 68% of species develop using
13440-470: The seabed, raising their body with the help of their arms, or swim using their arms. Most species of sea feather, however, are largely sedentary, seldom moving far from their chosen place of concealment. The modes of feeding vary greatly between the different echinoderm taxa. Crinoids and some brittle stars tend to be passive filter-feeders, enmeshing suspended particles from passing water. Most sea urchins are grazers; sea cucumbers are deposit feeders; and
13568-441: The seabed. Some sea cucumbers live infaunally in burrows, anterior-end down and anus on the surface, swallowing sediment and passing it through their gut. Other burrowers live anterior-end up and wait for detritus to fall into the entrances of the burrows or rake in debris from the surface nearby with their buccal podia. Nearly all starfish are detritus feeders or carnivores, though a few are suspension feeders. Small fish landing on
13696-677: The setting for parts of the movie Das Boot . The U-boat scenes in Raiders of the Lost Ark were also shot in La Rochelle. The base is featured in the computer game Commandos 2: Men of Courage . It was also chosen in 2018 for the location shooting of the German television series Das Boot (a sequel to the 1981 classic ). La Rochelle possesses a commercial deep water harbour, named La Pallice . The large submarine pens built during World War II still stand there, although they are not in use. La Pallice
13824-416: The skeleton, migrates inwards. The secondary body cavity, the coelom, forms by the partitioning of three body cavities. The larvae are often planktonic , but in some species the eggs are retained inside the female, while in some the female broods the larvae. The larvae pass through several stages, which have specific names derived from the taxonomic names of the adults or from their appearance. For example,
13952-747: The slave trade of La Rochelle ended with the onset of the French Revolution and the war with England in the 1790s, the last La Rochelle slave ship, the Saint-Jacques being captured in 1793 in the Gulf of Guinea . In February 1794, the National Convention passed the Law of 4 February 1794 , which effectively freed all colonial slaves. In 1809, the Battle of the Basque Roads took place near La Rochelle, in which
14080-649: The soft body parts. As the adductor muscle of the bivalve relaxes, more stomach is inserted and when digestion is complete, the stomach is returned to its usual position in the starfish with its now liquefied bivalve meal inside it. Other starfish evert the stomach to feed on sponges, sea anemones, corals, detritus and algal films. Despite their low nutrition value and the abundance of indigestible calcite, echinoderms are preyed upon by many organisms, including bony fish , sharks , eider ducks , gulls , crabs , gastropod molluscs , other echinoderms, sea otters , Arctic foxes and humans. Larger starfish prey on smaller ones;
14208-454: The sum of the strengths of its separate strands. He examined and reported on the auriferous (gold-bearing) rivers, the turquoise mines, the forests and the fossil beds of France. He devised the method of tinning iron that is still employed, and investigated the differences between iron and steel, correctly showing that the amount of carbon is greatest in cast iron , less in steel, and least in wrought iron . His book on this subject (1722)
14336-603: The time of the suppression of the Amboise conspiracy , before the riots spread to many other cities. Further cases of Reformation iconoclasm were recorded in La Rochelle from 30 May 1562, following the Massacre of Vassy . Protestants pillaged churches, destroyed images and statues, and also assassinated 13 Catholic priests in the Tower of the Lantern . From 1568, La Rochelle became a centre for
14464-411: The tube feet are coordinated, as the animal glides steadily along. Some burrowing starfish have points rather than suckers on their tube feet and they are able to "glide" across the seabed at a faster rate. Sea urchins use their tube feet to move around in a similar way to starfish. Some also use their articulated spines to push or lever themselves along or lift their oral surfaces off the substrate. If
14592-430: The tube feet lack suckers and are used in a back-and-forth wafting motion to pass food particles captured by the arms towards the central mouth. In the asteroids, the same motion is employed to move the animal across the ground. Echinoderms possess a simple digestive system which varies according to the animal's diet. Starfish are mostly carnivorous and have a mouth, oesophagus, two-part stomach, intestine and rectum, with
14720-403: The tubular coelomic system. Echinoderms are unusual in having both a coelomic circulatory system (the water vascular system) and a haemal circulatory system, as most groups of animals have just one of the two. Haemal and perihaemal systems are derived from the original coelom, forming an open and reduced circulatory system. This usually consists of a central ring and five radial vessels. There
14848-447: The upper surface may be captured by pedicilaria and dead animal matter may be scavenged but the main prey items are living invertebrates, mostly bivalve molluscs. To feed on one of these, the starfish moves over it, attaches its tube feet and exerts pressure on the valves by arching its back. When a small gap between the valves is formed, the starfish inserts part of its stomach into the prey, excretes digestive enzymes and slowly liquefies
14976-536: The wars was a prosperous one, marked by intense exchanges with the New World ( Nouvelle France in Canada, and the Antilles ). La Rochelle armateurs (shipowners) became very active in triangular trade with the New World, dealing in the slave trade with Africa, sugar trade with plantations of the West Indies , and fur trade with Canada. This was a period of high artistic, cultural and architectural achievements for
15104-480: The western Atlantic and trading with the New World , which served to counterbalance the disadvantage of not being at the mouth of a river (useful for shipping goods to and from the interior). Its Protestant ship-owning and merchant class prospered in the 16th century until the Wars of Religion devastated the city. The British navy in wartime were alert that shore watchers at La Rochelle were employed. The period following
15232-400: The white cliffs that border the sea, which contain many small marine fossils . Layers of thick white rock, formed during period of relatively warm seas, alternate with highly fragile layers containing sand and remains of mud, formed during colder periods, and with layers containing various corals, that were formed during warmer, tropical times. The limestone thus formed is traditionally used as
15360-721: The year due to the influence of the Gulf Stream waters, the summers are relatively warm, and insolation is remarkably high—the highest in Western France, including sea resorts much further to the south such as Biarritz . La Rochelle seldom experiences very cold or very warm weather. These specific conditions – summer: dry and sunny, winter: mild and wet – have led to the establishment of a Mediterranean-type vegetation cohabiting with more continental and oceanic types of vegetation. Echinodermata See taxonomy An echinoderm ( / ɪ ˈ k aɪ n ə ˌ d ɜːr m , ˈ ɛ k ə -/ )
15488-506: Was able to considerably increase the Huguenot presence in La Rochelle, from a small base of about 50 souls who had been secretly educated in the Lutheran faith by Charles de Clermont the previous year. He has been described, by Lancelot Voisin de La Popelinière , as "le père de l'église de La Rochelle" ("The Father of the Church of La Rochelle"). La Rochelle was the first French city, with Rouen , to experience iconoclastic riots in 1560, at
15616-420: Was awarded a pension of 12,000 livres . Content with his ample private income, he requested that the money should go to the Académie des Sciences for the furtherance of experiments on improved industrial processes. In 1731 he became interested in meteorology , and invented the thermometer scale which bears his name: the Réaumur . In 1735, for family reasons, he accepted the post of commander and intendant of
15744-523: Was originated by Jacob Theodor Klein in 1734, but only in reference to echinoids . It was expanded to the phylum level by Jean Guillaume Bruguière , first informally in 1789 and then in formal Latin in 1791. In 1955, Libbie Hyman attributed the name to "Bruguière, 1791 [ex Klein, 1734]." This attribution has become common and is listed by the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS), although some workers believe that
15872-465: Was so celebrated at the time that the Kangxi Emperor of China had it translated into Chinese. His observations of wasps making paper from wood fibres have led some to credit him with this change in paper-making techniques. It was over a century before wood pulp was used on any industrial scale in paper making. He studied the relationship between the growth of insects and temperature. He also computed
16000-538: Was sunk after a collision in the port of Singapore (1996) is now on display (rotting) at the Maritime Museum of La Rochelle. The French Socialist Party has held its annual summer convention ( Université d'été ) in La Rochelle since 1983. The Festival de la Fiction is a film festival that films screens new films in official competitions (French, European, and other Francophone countries ), out of competition, and also in special screenings. The first ten years of
16128-402: Was the burning at the stake of two "heretics" in La Rochelle in 1552. Conversions to Calvinism however continued, due to a change of religious beliefs, but also to a desire for political independence on the part of the local elite, and a popular opposition to royal expenses and requisitions in the building projects to fortify the coast against England. On the initiative of Gaspard de Coligny ,
16256-582: Was the last French city to be liberated at the end of the war. The Allied siege of La Rochelle took place between 12 September 1944 and 7 May 1945. The stronghold, including the islands of Ré and Oléron , was held by 20,000 German troops under German vice-admiral Ernst Schirlitz . Following negotiations by the French Navy frigate captain Meyer, the general German capitulation occurred on 7 May and French troops entered La Rochelle on 8 May. The submarine base became
16384-458: Was translated into English and German. He was noted for a thermometer he constructed on the principle of taking the freezing point of water as 0°, and graduating the tube into degrees each of which was one-thousandth of the volume contained by the bulb and tube up to the zero mark. It was an accident dependent on the particular alcohol employed which made the boiling-point of water 108°; mercurial thermometers graduated into 80 equal parts between
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