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66-444: Defunct Agrarianism is a social and political philosophy that advocates for a return to subsistence agriculture , family farming , widespread property ownership , and political decentralization . Those who adhere to agrarianism tend to value traditional forms of local community over urban modernity. Agrarian political parties sometimes aim to support the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants against

132-478: A book may be paper or electronic. Marketing theory makes use of the service-goods continuum as an important concept which "enables marketers to see the relative goods/services composition of total products". In a narrower sense, service refers to quality of customer service : the measured appropriateness of assistance and support provided to a customer. This particular usage occurs frequently in retailing . Distinctions are made between goods and services in

198-510: A clear policy of local food and/or self-sustainability models. Social philosophy There is often a considerable overlap between the questions addressed by social philosophy and ethics or value theory . Other forms of social philosophy include political philosophy and jurisprudence , which are largely concerned with the societies of state and government and their functioning. Social philosophy, ethics, and political philosophy all share intimate connections with other disciplines in

264-424: A disincentive to vast accumulations of wealth and would make funds available for some sort of benign redistribution downward" and tariffs on imported articles, which were mainly purchased by the wealthy. In 1811, Jefferson, writing to a friend, explained: "these revenues will be levied entirely on the rich... . the rich alone use imported articles, and on these alone the whole taxes of the general government are levied.

330-481: A heavy emphasis on the role of peasants in its goals. In contrast to other Marxist schools of thought which normally seek to acquire the support of urban workers, Maoism sees the peasantry as key. Believing that " political power grows out of the barrel of a gun ", Maoism saw the Chinese Peasantry as the prime source for a Marxist vanguard because it possessed two qualities: (i) they were poor, and (ii) they were

396-578: A partner in the five-party pětka coalition. The party's leader, Antonín Švehla (1873–1933), was prime minister several times. It was consistently the strongest party, forming and dominating coalitions. It moved beyond its original agrarian base to reach middle-class voters. The party was banned by the National Front after the Second World War . In France , the Hunting, Fishing, Nature, Tradition party

462-718: A political blank slate; in Mao's words, "A clean sheet of paper has no blotches, and so the newest and most beautiful words can be written on it". During the Chinese Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War , Mao and the Chinese Communist Party made extensive use of peasants and rural bases in their military tactics, often eschewing the cities. Following the eventual victory of the Communist Party in both wars,

528-471: A political tradition particular to the Nordic countries . Positioning themselves in the centre of the political spectrum , but fulfilling roles distinctive to Nordic countries, they remain hard to classify by conventional political ideology. These parties are non- Socialist and typically combine a commitment to small businesses , rural issues and political decentralisation , and, at times, scepticism towards

594-568: A while, in the 1920s and the 1930s, there was a Green International ( International Agrarian Bureau ) based on the peasant parties in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland , and Serbia . It functioned primarily as an information center that spread the ideas of agrarianism and combating socialism on the left and landlords on the right and never launched any significant activities. In Bulgaria, the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BZNS)

660-466: Is a moderate conservative, agrarian party, reaching a peak of 4.23% in the 2002 French presidential election . It would later on become affiliated to France's main conservative party, Union for a Popular Movement . More recently, the Resistons! movement of Jean Lassalle espoused agrarianism. In Hungary, the first major agrarian party, the small-holders party was founded in 1908. The party became part of

726-525: Is concerned with identity, and defining strata that categorize society, for example race and gender . Other social philosophy examines agency and free will , and whether people socialized in a particular way are accountable for their actions. It also looks at the concepts of property , rights , and authority , examining actions in terms of both ethical values and their wider social effect; it applies situational ethics to broader political concepts. Sociology of language considers communication in

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792-735: Is the production , distribution , and consumption of goods and services which underpins all economic activity and trade . According to economic theory , consumption of goods and services is assumed to provide utility (satisfaction) to the consumer or end-user, although businesses also consume goods and services in the course of producing their own. Physiocratic economists categorized production into productive labour and unproductive labour. Adam Smith expanded this thought by arguing that any economic activities directly related to material products (goods) were productive, and those activities which involved non-material production (services) were unproductive. This emphasis on material production

858-812: The "plain folk" . In praising the rural farmfolk, the Jeffersonians felt that financiers, bankers and industrialists created "cesspools of corruption" in the cities and should thus be avoided. The Jeffersonians sought to align the American economy more with agriculture than industry. Part of their motive to do so was Jefferson's fear that the over-industrialization of America would create a class of wage slaves who relied on their employers for income and sustenance. In turn, these workers would cease to be independent voters as their vote could be manipulated by said employers. To counter this, Jefferson introduced, as scholar Clay Jenkinson noted, "a graduated income tax that would serve as

924-637: The 1999 legislative election and eventually unite with the Civic Party of Kazakhstan to form the pro-government Agrarian-Industrial Union of Workers (AIST) bloc that would be chaired by Madinov for the 2004 legislative election , with the AIST bloc winning 11 seats in the Mäjilis. From there, the bloc remained short-lived as it would merge with the ruling Nur Otan party in 2006. Several other parties in Kazakhstan over

990-469: The 2022 presidential election after sweeping 3.4% of the vote. In the 2023 legislative election , the Auyl party for the first time was represented the parliament after winning nine seats in the lower chamber Mäjilis. The party raises rural issues in regard to decaying villages, rural development and the agro-industrial complex , the issues of social security of the rural population, and has consistently opposed

1056-538: The Anti-Rightist Campaign , Mao had instilled a mass distrust of intellectuals into China, and thus engineers often were not consulted with regard to the new irrigation systems and the wisdom of asking untrained peasants to produce good quality steel from scrap iron was not publicly questioned. Similarly, the experimentation with the crops did not produce results. In addition to this the Four Pests Campaign

1122-720: The European Union . The parties have divergent views on the free market and environmentalism . Internationally, they are most commonly aligned to the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) and the Liberal International . Defunct In Poland , the Polish People's Party ( Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe , PSL) traces its tradition to an agrarian party in Austro-Hungarian -controlled Galician Poland . After

1188-649: The National Liberal Party ), but it reformed in 1989 after they fell from power. The reformed party , which also incorporated elements of Christian democracy in its ideology, governed Romania as part of the Romanian Democratic Convention (CDR) between 1996 and 2000. In Serbia, Nikola Pašić (1845–1926) and his People's Radical Party dominated Serbian politics after 1903. The party also monopolized power in Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1929. During

1254-580: The Peasants' Union , originally a communist organization, was formed as one of first agrarian parties in independent Kazakhstan and would win four seats in the 1994 legislative election . The Agrarian Party of Kazakhstan , led by Romin Madinov , was founded in 1999, which favored the privatization of agricultural land, developments towards rural infrastructure, as well as changes in the tax system in agrarian economy. The party would go on to win three Mäjilis seats in

1320-417: The balance of trade . Whereas the mercantilist school of economics held that value in the products of society was created at the point of sale, by the seller exchanging his products for more money than the products had "previously" been worth, the physiocratic school of economics was the first to see labor as the sole source of value. However, for the physiocrats, only agricultural labor created this value in

1386-424: The electricity supply is defined among goods rather than services in the European Union , whereas under United States federal procurement regulations , it is treated as a service. Goods are normally structural and can be transferred in an instant while services are delivered over a period of time. Goods can be returned while a service, once delivered cannot. Goods are not always tangible and may be virtual e.g.

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1452-428: The social sciences and the humanities . In turn, the social sciences themselves are of focal interest to the philosophy of social science . Social philosophy is broadly interdisciplinary, looking at all of phenomenology , epistemology , and philosophy of language from a sociological perspective; phenomenological sociology , social epistemology and sociology of language respectively. Some social philosophy

1518-992: The 19th century such empowered advocates included Peelites and most Conservatives . The 20th century saw the growth or start of influential non-governmental organisations, such as the National Farmers' Union of England and Wales , Campaign for Rural England , Friends of the Earth (EWNI) and of the England Wales, Scottish and Northern Irish political parties prefixed by and focussed on Green politics . The 21st century has seen decarbonisation already in electricity markets . Following protests and charitable lobbying local food has seen growing market share, sometimes backed by wording in public policy papers and manifestos. The UK has many sustainability-prioritising businesses, green charity campaigns, events and lobby groups ranging from espousing allotment gardens (hobby community farming) through to

1584-588: The French agrarian philosophy of physiocracy . The physiocrats, along with the ideas of John Locke and the Romantic Era , formed the basis of modern European and American agrarianism. Physiocracy (French: physiocratie ; from the Greek for "government of nature") is an economic theory developed by a group of 18th-century Age of Enlightenment French economists who believed that the wealth of nations derived solely from

1650-634: The Land; also called the National Agricultural Party ) was founded in 1938. They focused more on the poor smallholders of the west, supporting land reclamation , afforestation , social democracy and rates reform. They formed part of the governing coalition of the Government of the 13th Dáil and Government of the 15th Dáil . Economic improvement in the 1960s saw farmers vote for other parties and Clann na Talmhan disbanded in 1965. In Kazakhstan ,

1716-792: The People's Republic of China) created their own version of the Great Leap Forward which was known as "Maha Lout Ploh". With the Great Leap Forward as its model, it had similarly disastrous effects, contributing to what is now known as the Cambodian genocide . As a part of the Maha Lout Ploh, the Khmer Rouge sought to create an entirely agrarian socialist society by forcibly relocating 100,000 people to move from Cambodia's cities into newly created communes. The Khmer Rouge leader, Pol Pot sought to "purify"

1782-412: The agrarian socialist movement of Zapata, but fuse it with new elements such as a commitment to indigenous rights and community-level decision making. Subcommander Marcos , a leading member of the movement, argues that the peoples' collective ownership of the land was and is the basis for all subsequent developments the movement sought to create: ...When the land became property of the peasants ... when

1848-527: The cities. However, Mao turned the practice into a political crusade, declaring that the sending down would strip the youth of any bourgeois tendencies by forcing them to learn from the unprivileged rural peasants. In reality, it was the Communist Party's attempt to reign in the Red Guards , who had become uncontrollable during the course of the Cultural Revolution . 10% of the 1970 urban population of China

1914-537: The context of social relations, for example speech acts or performative utterances are social actions in themselves. Other relevant issues considered by social philosophy are: A list of philosophers that have concerned themselves, although most of them not exclusively, with social philosophy: Goods and services Goods are items that are usually (but not always) tangible , such as pens or apples . Services are activities provided by other people, such as teachers or barbers . Taken together, it

1980-399: The country by setting it back to " Year Zero ", freeing it from "corrupting influences". Besides trying to completely de-urbanize Cambodia, ethnic minorities were slaughtered along with anyone else who was suspected of being a "reactionary" or a member of the "bourgeoisie", to the point that wearing glasses was seen as grounds for execution. The killings were only brought to an end when Cambodia

2046-546: The countryside and how it should be run remained a focus for Mao. In 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward , a social and economic campaign which, amongst other things, altered many aspects of rural Chinese life. It introduced mandatory collective farming and forced the peasantry to organize itself into communal living units which were known as people's communes . These communes, which consisted of 5,000 people on average, were expected to meet high production quotas while

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2112-643: The course of the Revolution, but his political ideas lived on in the form of Zapatismo . Zapatismo would form the basis for neozapatismo , the ideology of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation . Known as Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional or EZLN in Spanish, EZLN is a far-left libertarian socialist political and militant group that emerged in the state of Chiapas in southmost Mexico in 1994. EZLN and Neozapatismo, as explicit in their name, seek to revive

2178-582: The dictatorship of the 1930s, the prime minister was from that party. In Ukraine, the Radical Party of Oleh Lyashko has promised to purify the country of oligarchs "with a pitchfork ". The party advocates a number of traditional left-wing positions (a progressive tax structure, a ban on agricultural land sale and eliminating the illegal land market, a tenfold increase in budget spending on health, setting up primary health centres in every village) and mixes them with strong nationalist sentiments. In land law

2244-652: The fall of the communist regime, PSL's biggest success came in 1993 elections , where it won 132 out of 460 parliamentary seats. Since then, PSL's support has steadily declined, until 2019, when they formed Polish Coalition with an anti-establishment, direct democracy Kukiz'15 party, and managed to get 8.5% of popular vote. Moreover, PSL tends to get much better results in local elections. In 2014 elections they have managed to get 23.88% of votes. The right-wing Law and Justice party has also become supportive of agrarian policies in recent years and polls show that most of their support comes from rural areas. AGROunia resembles

2310-574: The features of agrarianism. In Romania , older party parties from Transylvania , Moldavia , and Wallachia merged to become the National Peasants' Party (PNȚ) in 1926. Iuliu Maniu (1873–1953) was a prime minister with an agrarian cabinet from 1928 to 1930 and briefly in 1932–1933, but the Great Depression made proposed reforms impossible. The communist administration dissolved the party in 1947 (along with other historical parties such as

2376-602: The following basic tenets: The philosophical roots of agrarianism include European and Chinese philosophers. The Chinese school of Agriculturalism (农家/農家) was a philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism . In societies influenced by Confucianism that had as its foundation that humans are innately good, the farmer was considered an esteemed productive member of society, but merchants who made money were looked down upon. That influenced European intellectuals like François Quesnay , an avid Confucianist and advocate of China's agrarian policies, in forming

2442-471: The government in the 1920s but lost influence in the government. A new party, the Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party was established in 1930 with a more radical program representing larger scale land redistribution initiatives. They implemented this program together with the other coalition parties after WWII. However, after 1949 the party was outlawed when a one-party system

2508-480: The heyday of English, Irish (and thus Welsh) agrarianism was c.  1500 to 1603, led by the Tudor royal advisors, who sought to maintain a broad pool of agricultural commoners from which to draw military men, against the interests of larger landowners who sought enclosure (meaning complete private control of common land, over which by custom and common law lords of the manor always enjoyed minor rights). The heyday

2574-445: The land passed into the hands of those who work it ... [This was] the starting point for advances in government, health, education, housing, nutrition, women's participation, trade, culture, communication, and information ...[it was] recovering the means of production, in this case, the land, animals, and machines that were in the hands of large property owners." Maoism , the far-left ideology of Mao Zedong and his followers, places

2640-641: The land they worked on. The " Land War " of 1878–1909 led to the Irish Land Acts , ending absentee landlords and ground rent and redistributing land among peasant farmers. Post-independence, the Farmers' Party operated in the Irish Free State from 1922, folding into the National Centre Party in 1932. It was mostly supported by wealthy farmers in the east of Ireland. Clann na Talmhan (Family of

2706-431: The movement, which immediately preceded the first modern school, classical economics , which began with the publication of Adam Smith 's The Wealth of Nations in 1776. The physiocrats made a significant contribution in their emphasis on productive work as the source of national wealth. This contrasted with earlier schools, in particular mercantilism , which often focused on the ruler's wealth, accumulation of gold, or

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2772-693: The ongoing rural flight in Kazakhstan. In Latvia, the Union of Greens and Farmers is supportive of traditional small farms and perceives them as more environmentally friendly than large-scale farming: Nature is threatened by development, while small farms are threatened by large industrial-scale farms. In Lithuania, the government led by the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union was in power between 2016 and 2020. The Nordic agrarian parties , also referred to as Scandinavian agrarian parties or agrarian liberal parties, are agrarian political parties that belong to

2838-451: The other. Most products fall between these two extremes. For example, a restaurant provides a physical good (prepared food), but also provides services in the form of ambience, the setting and clearing of the table, etc. Although some utilities, such as electricity and communications service providers , exclusively provide services, other utilities deliver physical goods, such as water utilities . For public sector contracting purposes,

2904-414: The peasants into obeying local officials and they often devolved into little more than public beatings. On the communes, experiments were conducted in order to find new methods of planting crops, efforts were made to construct new irrigation systems on a massive scale, and the communes were all encouraged to produce steel backyard furnaces as part of an effort to increase steel production. However, following

2970-557: The peasants who lived on them adapted to this radically new way of life. The communes were run as co-operatives where wages and money were replaced by work points. Peasants who criticised this new system were persecuted as " rightists " and " counter-revolutionaries ". Leaving the communes was forbidden and escaping from them was difficult or impossible, and those who attempted it were subjected to party-orchestrated "public struggle sessions ," which further jeopardized their survival. These public criticism sessions were often used to intimidate

3036-518: The poor man ... pays not a farthing of tax to the general government, but on his salt." There is general agreement that the substantial United States' federal policy of offering land grants (such as thousands of gifts of land to veterans) had a positive impact on economic development in the 19th century. Agrarian socialism is a form of agrarianism that is anti-capitalist in nature and seeks to introduce socialist economic systems in their stead. Notable agrarian socialists include Emiliano Zapata who

3102-402: The primary source of a nation's wealth. This is an idea which Quesnay purported to demonstrate with data, comparing a workshop to a farm. He analyzed "how money flowed between the three classes of farmers, proprietors, and artisans, in the same mechanical way that blood flows between different organs" and claimed only the farm produced a surplus that added to the nation's wealth. Physiocrats viewed

3168-428: The production of goods and services as equivalent to the consumption of the agricultural surplus, since human or animal muscle provided the main source of power and all energy derived from the surplus from agricultural production. Profit in capitalist production was really only the "rent" obtained by the owner of the land on which the agricultural production took place. The United States president Thomas Jefferson

3234-479: The products of society. All "industrial" and non-agricultural labors were "unproductive appendages" to agricultural labor. Quesnay was likely influenced by his medical training, particularly by the work of William Harvey who explained how blood flow and the circulatory system is vital to the human body; Quesnay held that the circulation of wealth was vital to the economy. Societies at the time were also overwhelmingly agrarian. This may be why they viewed agriculture as

3300-453: The profit from crop sales in local hands and credit institutions to underwrite needed improvements. Many peasant parties were also nationalist parties because peasants often worked their land for the benefit of landlords of different ethnicity. Peasant parties rarely had any power before World War I but some became influential in the interwar era, especially in Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia . For

3366-551: The quotas. In many cases they stated that they were greatly exceeding their quotas, and in turn, the Chinese state developed a completely false sense of success with regard to the commune system. All of this culminated in the Great Chinese Famine , which began in 1959, lasted 3 years, and saw an estimated 15 to 30 million Chinese people die. A combination of bad weather and the new, failed farming techniques that were introduced by

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3432-700: The state led to massive shortages of food. By 1962, the Great Leap Forward was declared to be at an end. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Mao once again radically altered life in rural China with the launching of the Down to the Countryside Movement . As a response to the Great Chinese Famine, the Chinese President Liu Shaoqi began "sending down" urban youths to rural China in order to recover its population losses and alleviate overcrowding in

3498-463: The value of "land agriculture" or " land development " and that agricultural products should be highly priced. Their theories originated in France and were most popular during the second half of the 18th century. Physiocracy became one of the first well-developed theories of economics. François Quesnay (1694–1774), the marquis de Mirabeau (1715–1789) and Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727–1781) dominated

3564-581: The villages provided little benefit to the agricultural sector. As a result, many of the sent-down youth died in the countryside. The relocation of the youths was originally intended to be permanent, but by the end of the Cultural Revolution, the Communist Party relented and some of those who had the capacity to return to the cities were allowed to do so. In imitation of Mao's policies, the Khmer Rouge of Cambodia (who were heavily funded and supported by

3630-409: The wealthy in society. Some scholars suggest that agrarianism espouses the superiority of rural society to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker, and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values. It stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life in comparison to the complexity of urban life. For example, M. Thomas Inge defines agrarianism by

3696-421: The years have embraced agrarian policies in their programs in an effort to appeal towards a large rural Kazakh demographic base, which included Amanat , ADAL , and Respublica . Since late 2000s, the "Auyl" People's Democratic Patriotic Party remains the largest and most influential agrarian-oriented party in Kazakhstan, as its presidential candidate Jiguli Dairabaev had become the second-place frontrunner in

3762-718: Was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution . As part of the Liberation Army of the South , his group of revolutionaries fought on behalf of the Mexican peasants, whom they saw as exploited by the landowning classes. Zapata published the Plan of Ayala , which called for significant land reforms and land redistribution in Mexico as part of the revolution. Zapata was killed and his forces crushed over

3828-450: Was adapted by David Ricardo , Thomas Robert Malthus and John Stuart Mill , and influenced later Marxian economics . Other, mainly Italian, 18th-century economists maintained that all desired goods and services were productive. The division of consumables into services is a simplification: these are not discrete categories. Most business theorists see a continuum with pure service at one endpoint and pure tangible commodity goods at

3894-402: Was an agrarian who based his ideas about the budding American democracy around the notion that farmers are "the most valuable citizens" and the truest republicans . Jefferson and his support base were committed to American republicanism , which they saw as being in opposition to aristocracy and corruption , and which prioritized virtue , exemplified by the " yeoman farmer ", " planters ", and

3960-480: Was eroded by hundreds of Acts of Parliament to expressly permit enclosure, chiefly from 1650 to the 1810s. Politicians standing strongly as reactionaries to this included the Levellers , those anti-industrialists ( Luddites ) going beyond opposing new weaving technology and, later, radicals such as William Cobbett . A high level of net national or local self-sufficiency has a strong base in campaigns and movements. In

4026-553: Was introduced. They became part of the government again 1990–1994, and 1998–2002 after which they lost political support. The ruling Fidesz party has an agrarian faction, and promotes agrarian interest since 2010 with the emphasis now placed on supporting larger family farms versus small-holders. In the late 19th century, the Irish National Land League aimed to abolish landlordism in Ireland and enable tenant farmers to own

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4092-415: Was invaded by the neighboring socialist nation of Vietnam , whose army toppled the Khmer Rouge. However, with Cambodia's entire society and economy in disarray, including its agricultural sector, the country still plunged into renewed famine due to vast food shortages. However, as international journalists began to report on the situation and send images of it out to the world, a massive international response

4158-593: Was launched, in which the peasants were called upon to destroy sparrows and other wild birds that ate crop seeds, in order to protect fields. Pest birds were shot down or scared away from landing until they dropped from exhaustion. This campaign resulted in an ecological disaster that saw an explosion of the vermin population, especially crop-eating insects, which was consequently not in danger of being killed by predators. None of these new systems were working, but local leaders did not dare to state this, instead, they falsified reports so as not to be punished for failing to meet

4224-545: Was organized in 1899 to resist taxes and build cooperatives. BZNS came to power in 1919 and introduced many economic, social, and legal reforms. However, conservative forces crushed BZNS in a 1923 coup and assassinated its leader, Aleksandar Stamboliyski (1879–1923). BZNS was made into a communist puppet group until 1989, when it reorganized as a genuine party. In Czechoslovakia , the Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People often shared power in parliament as

4290-483: Was provoked, leading to one of the most concentrated relief efforts of its time. Peasant parties first appeared across Eastern Europe between 1860 and 1910, when commercialized agriculture and world market forces disrupted traditional rural society, and the railway and growing literacy facilitated the work of roving organizers. Agrarian parties advocated land reforms to redistribute land on large estates among those who work it. They also wanted village cooperatives to keep

4356-496: Was sent out to remote rural villages, often in Inner Mongolia . The villages, which were still poorly recovering from the effects of the Great Chinese Famine, did not have the excess resources that were needed to support the newcomers. Furthermore, the so-called " sent-down youth " had no agricultural experience and as a result, they were unaccustomed to the harsh lifestyle that existed in the countryside, and their unskilled labor in

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