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82-639: When Roslags-Bro church was built in the 13th century it was located by a once important sea-route which has since disappeared as a consequence of post-glacial rebound . Immured in the church is a runestone from the 11th century raised in memory of a man who was killed in Estonia across the Baltic Sea (runestone U533 ). Throughout the Middle Ages , the church was one of the most important churches in Roslagen , and one of

164-428: A "type area" illustrating the effects of post-glacial rebound and the holocene glacial retreat . In several other Nordic ports, like Tornio and Pori (formerly at Ulvila ), the harbour has had to be relocated several times. Place names in the coastal regions also illustrate the rising land: there are inland places named 'island', 'skerry', 'rock', 'point' and 'sound'. For example, Oulunsalo "island of Oulujoki "

246-426: A long enough time. Thus, the observations of postglacial rebound provide a natural experiment to measure mantle rheology. Modelling of glacial isostatic adjustment addresses the question of how viscosity changes in the radial and lateral directions and whether the flow law is linear, nonlinear, or composite rheology. Mantle viscosity may additionally be estimated using seismic tomography , where seismic velocity

328-496: A more efficient path to the ocean than the existing Volga–Don Canal . This usage can also be seen in the names of Eurasianet , The Journal of Eurasian Studies , and the Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies , as well as the titles of numerous academic programmes at US universities. This usage is comparable to how Americans use " Western Hemisphere " to describe concepts and organizations dealing with

410-407: Is colatitude and λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is longitude , t {\displaystyle t} is time, ρ i {\displaystyle \rho _{i}} and ρ w {\displaystyle \rho _{w}} are the densities of ice and water, respectively, γ {\displaystyle \gamma }

492-447: Is a peninsula, with inland names such as Koivukari "Birch Rock", Santaniemi "Sandy Cape", and Salmioja "the brook of the Sound". (Compare [1] and [2] .) In Great Britain , glaciation affected Scotland but not southern England , and the post-glacial rebound of northern Great Britain (up to 10 cm per century) is causing a corresponding downward movement of the southern half of

574-659: Is a reference surface for altitude measurement and plays vital roles in many human activities, including land surveying and construction of buildings and bridges. Since postglacial rebound continuously deforms the crustal surface and the gravitational field, the vertical datum needs to be redefined repeatedly through time. According to the theory of plate tectonics , plate-plate interaction results in earthquakes near plate boundaries. However, large earthquakes are found in intraplate environments like eastern Canada (up to M7) and northern Europe (up to M5) which are far away from present-day plate boundaries. An important intraplate earthquake

656-514: Is a single supercontinent . The concepts of Europe and Asia as distinct continents date back to antiquity , but their borders have historically been subject to change. For example, to the ancient Greeks , Asia originally included Africa but they classified Europe as separate land. Eurasia is connected to Africa at the Suez Canal , and the two are sometimes combined to describe the largest contiguous landmass on Earth, Afro-Eurasia . Primarily in

738-580: Is also monitored by a GPS network called BIFROST. Results of GPS data show a peak rate of about 11 mm/year in the north part of the Gulf of Bothnia , but this uplift rate decreases away and becomes negative outside the former ice margin. In the near field outside the former ice margin, the land sinks relative to the sea. This is the case along the east coast of the United States, where ancient beaches are found submerged below present day sea level and Florida

820-465: Is disputed, since Mount Elbrus would be part of Europe in the latter case, making it (and not Mont Blanc ) Europe's highest mountain. Most accepted is probably the boundary as defined by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg in the 18th century. He defined the dividing line along the Aegean Sea , Dardanelles , Sea of Marmara , Bosporus , Black Sea , Kuma–Manych Depression , Caspian Sea , Ural River , and

902-408: Is due to the gravitational attraction between the mass of the melted water and the other masses, such as remaining ice sheets, glaciers, water masses and mantle rocks and the changes in centrifugal potential due to Earth's variable rotation. Accompanying vertical motion is the horizontal motion of the crust. The BIFROST GPS network shows that the motion diverges from the centre of rebound. However,

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984-583: Is expected to be submerged in the future. GPS data in North America also confirms that land uplift becomes subsidence outside the former ice margin. To form the ice sheets of the last Ice Age, water from the oceans evaporated, condensed as snow and was deposited as ice in high latitudes. Thus global sea level fell during glaciation. The ice sheets at the last glacial maximum were so massive that global sea level fell by about 120 metres. Thus continental shelves were exposed and many islands became connected with

1066-410: Is important in monitoring recent global warming. One of the possible impacts of global warming-triggered rebound may be more volcanic activity in previously ice-capped areas such as Iceland and Greenland. It may also trigger intraplate earthquakes near the ice margins of Greenland and Antarctica. Unusually rapid (up to 4.1 cm/year) present glacial isostatic rebound due to recent ice mass losses in

1148-515: Is often used in Kazakhstan to describe its location. Numerous Kazakh institutions have the term in their names, like the L. N. Gumilev Eurasian National University ( Kazakh : Л. Н. Гумилёв атындағы Еуразия Ұлттық университеті ; Евразийский Национальный университет имени Л. Н. Гумилёва ) ( Lev Gumilev 's Eurasianism ideas having been popularized in Kazakhstan by Olzhas Suleimenov ),

1230-458: Is one of the leading factors. Mass changes of ice sheets can be monitored by measuring changes in the ice surface height, the deformation of the ground below and the changes in the gravity field over the ice sheet. Thus ICESat , GPS and GRACE satellite mission are useful for such purpose. However, glacial isostatic adjustment of the ice sheets affect ground deformation and the gravity field today. Thus understanding glacial isostatic adjustment

1312-457: Is the ice thickness variation, S E = S E ( t ) {\displaystyle S^{E}=S^{E}(t)} represents the eustatic term (i.e. the ocean–averaged value of S {\displaystyle S} ), ⊗ i {\displaystyle \otimes _{i}} and ⊗ o {\displaystyle \otimes _{o}} denote spatio-temporal convolutions over

1394-483: Is the patron saint. The church has an altarpiece from the early 15th century, one of the oldest in Sweden. In addition, it houses a 14th-century Madonna and a sculpture of Saint Stephen from the 15th century. Another unusual piece of wooden sculpture from the church is a medieval coffin with a statue of Christ . On Good Friday the congregation places the statue in the coffin. Before they arrive again on Easter Sunday

1476-480: Is the reference surface gravity, G s = G s ( h , k ) {\displaystyle G_{s}=G_{s}(h,k)} is the sea–level Green's function (dependent upon the h {\displaystyle h} and k {\displaystyle k} viscoelastic load–deformation coefficients - LDCs), I = I ( θ , λ , t ) {\displaystyle I=I(\theta ,\lambda ,t)}

1558-593: Is the rise of land masses after the removal of the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period , which had caused isostatic depression . Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are phases of glacial isostasy ( glacial isostatic adjustment , glacioisostasy ), the deformation of the Earth's crust in response to changes in ice mass distribution. The direct raising effects of post-glacial rebound are readily apparent in parts of Northern Eurasia , Northern America , Patagonia , and Antarctica . However, through

1640-442: Is used as a proxy observable. Ice thickness histories are useful in the study of paleoclimatology , glaciology and paleo-oceanography. Ice thickness histories are traditionally deduced from the three types of information: First, the sea level data at stable sites far away from the centers of deglaciation give an estimate of how much water entered the oceans or equivalently how much ice was locked up at glacial maximum. Secondly,

1722-1006: The Alps , the Arctic, the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, a definition that has been influential in Russia and other parts of the former Soviet Union. Nowadays, partly inspired by this usage, the term Eurasia is sometimes used to refer to the post-Soviet space – in particular Russia, the Central Asian republics, and the Transcaucasus republics – and sometimes also adjacent regions such as Turkey and Mongolia . The word "Eurasia"

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1804-635: The Arctic Ocean to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the east, and the Indo-Mediterranean to the south. The division between Europe and Asia as two continents is a historical social construct , as neither fits the usual definition; thus, in some parts of the world, Eurasia is recognized as the largest of the six, five, or four continents on Earth. Eurasia covers around 55 million square kilometres (21 million square miles), or around 36.2% of

1886-739: The Eurasian Plate includes Europe and most of Asia but not the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian Peninsula or the area of the Russian Far East east of the Chersky Range . From the point of view of history and culture, Eurasia can be loosely subdivided into Western Eurasia and Eastern Eurasia . In geology, Eurasia is often considered as a single rigid megablock, but this is debated. Eurasia formed between 375 and 325 million years ago with

1968-686: The Greeks classified Europe (derived from the mythological Phoenician princess Europa ) and Asia which to the Greeks originally included Africa (derived from Asia , a woman in Greek mythology ) as separate "lands". Where to draw the dividing line between the two regions is still a matter of discussion . Especially whether the Kuma-Manych Depression or the Caucasus Mountains form the southeast boundary

2050-534: The Italian or Iberian Peninsula. Due to its vast size and differences in latitude , Eurasia exhibits all types of climates under the Köppen classification , including the harshest types of hot and cold temperatures, high and low precipitation, and various types of ecosystems . Eurasia is considered a supercontinent , part of the supercontinent of Afro-Eurasia or simply a continent in its own right. In plate tectonics ,

2132-730: The Northern and Eastern Hemispheres , Eurasia spans from Iceland and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Russian Far East , and from the Russian Far North to Maritime Southeast Asia in the south, but other specific geographical limits of Eurasia states that the southern limit is in the Weber's line . Eurasia is bordered by Africa to the southwest, the Atlantic Ocean to the west,

2214-538: The Soviet Union ) then dominated much of the continent until the end of the Cold War in 1991. Originally, "Eurasia" is a geographical notion: in this sense, it is simply the biggest continent; the combined landmass of Europe and Asia. However, geopolitically, the word has several meanings, reflecting specific geopolitical interests. "Eurasia" is one of the most important geopolitical concepts and it figures prominently in

2296-1186: The Transhimalaya . Other high ranges include the Kunlun , Hindu Raj , and Caucasus Mountains . The Alpide belt stretches 15,000 km across southern Eurasia, from Java in Maritime Southeast Asia to the Iberian Peninsula in Western Europe , including the ranges of the Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Alborz , Caucasus, and the Alps . Long ranges outside the Alpide Belt include the East Siberian , Altai , Scandinavian , Qinling , Western Ghats , Vindhya , Byrranga , and Annamite Ranges . The largest Eurasian islands by area are Borneo , Sumatra , Honshu , Great Britain, Sulawesi , Java, Luzon , Iceland, Mindanao , Ireland , Hokkaido , Sakhalin , and Sri Lanka . The five most-populated islands in

2378-565: The Ural Mountains . However, at least part of this definition has been subject to criticism by many modern analytical geographers like Halford Mackinder , who saw little validity in the Ural Mountains as a boundary between continents. Nineteenth-century Russian philosopher Nikolai Danilevsky defined Eurasia as an entity separate from Europe and Asia, bounded by the Himalayas, the Caucasus,

2460-413: The gravity field , which is sensitive to all mass on the surface and within the Earth, is affected by the redistribution of ice/melted water on the surface of the Earth and the flow of mantle rocks within. Today, more than 6000 years after the last deglaciation terminated, the flow of mantle material back to the glaciated area causes the overall shape of the Earth to become less oblate . This change in

2542-572: The heterogeneous dispositif such metapolitical constructs used to control and exercise power. Across Eurasia, several single markets have emerged, including the Eurasian Economic Space , European Single Market , ASEAN Economic Community , and the Gulf Cooperation Council . There are also several international organizations and initiatives which seek to promote integration throughout Eurasia, including: In ancient times,

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2624-529: The "average height" over a thousand years or so. Glacial isostatic adjustment also plays an important role in understanding recent global warming and climate change. Before the eighteenth century, it was thought, in Sweden , that sea levels were falling. On the initiative of Anders Celsius a number of marks were made in rock on different locations along the Swedish coast. In 1765 it was possible to conclude that it

2706-400: The "new land" is legally the property of the owner of the water area, not any land owners on the shore. Therefore, if the owner of the land wishes to build a pier over the "new land", they need the permission of the owner of the (former) water area. The landowner of the shore may redeem the new land at market price. Usually the owner of the water area is the partition unit of the landowners of

2788-550: The Amundsen Sea embayment region of Antarctica coupled with low regional mantle viscosity is predicted to provide a modest stabilizing influence on marine ice sheet instability in West Antarctica, but likely not to a sufficient degree to arrest it. The speed and amount of postglacial rebound is determined by two factors: the viscosity or rheology (i.e., the flow) of the mantle, and the ice loading and unloading histories on

2870-654: The Earth's rotation. Another alternate term is "glacial isostasy", because the uplift near the centre of rebound is due to the tendency towards the restoration of isostatic equilibrium (as in the case of isostasy of mountains). Unfortunately, that term gives the wrong impression that isostatic equilibrium is somehow reached, so by appending "adjustment" at the end, the motion of restoration is emphasized. Post-glacial rebound produces measurable effects on vertical crustal motion, global sea levels, horizontal crustal motion, gravity field, Earth's rotation, crustal stress, and earthquakes. Studies of glacial rebound give us information about

2952-525: The Earth's total land area. The landmass contains well over 5 billion people, equating to approximately 70% of the human population . Humans first settled in Eurasia from Africa 125,000 years ago. Eurasia contains many peninsulas, including the Arabian Peninsula , Korean Peninsula , Indian subcontinent , Anatolia Peninsula , Kamchatka Peninsula , and Europe, which itself contains peninsulas such as

3034-787: The Eurasian Media Forum, the Eurasian Cultural Foundation ( Евразийский фонд культуры ), the Eurasian Development Bank ( Евразийский банк развития ), and the Eurasian Bank. In 2007 Kazakhstan's president, Nursultan Nazarbayev , proposed building a " Eurasia Canal " to connect the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea via Russia's Kuma-Manych Depression to provide Kazakhstan and other Caspian-basin countries with

3116-447: The SLE reads where S {\displaystyle S} is the sea–level change, N {\displaystyle N} is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth's center of mass, and U {\displaystyle U} is vertical displacement. In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow: where θ {\displaystyle \theta }

3198-473: The Western Hemisphere and Oceania geopolitically peripheral to the world's central continent. About 75 per cent of the world's people live in 'Eurasia', and most of the world's physical wealth is there as well, both in its enterprises and underneath its soil. 'Eurasia' accounts for about three-fourths of the world's known energy resources." The Russian " Eurasianism " corresponded initially more or less to

3280-466: The addition of melted ice water from glaciers and ice sheets, recent sea level changes are affected by the thermal expansion of sea water due to global warming, sea level change due to deglaciation of the last glacial maximum (postglacial sea level change), deformation of the land and ocean floor and other factors. Thus, to understand global warming from sea level change, one must be able to separate all these factors, especially postglacial rebound, since it

3362-462: The ceiling further vaulted and decorated with frescos . The latter have never been painted over and so retain much of their original brilliance. It has been suggested that Sten Sture the Elder might have commissioned them. During the 18th century the windows of the church were enlarged to their present size and an external wooden bell tower erected. Two free-standing burial chapels were added close to

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3444-442: The centre of rebound. Recently, the term "post-glacial rebound" is gradually being replaced by the term "glacial isostatic adjustment". This is in recognition that the response of the Earth to glacial loading and unloading is not limited to the upward rebound movement, but also involves downward land movement, horizontal crustal motion, changes in global sea levels and the Earth's gravity field, induced earthquakes, and changes in

3526-598: The church in the cemetery, and one attached to the western gable by Vendela Magnona Fleming for her and her husband, Duke Carl Gabrielsson Oxenstierna. It displays the coats of arms of the Fleming and Oxenstierna families. Despite a few later additions and alterations, Roslags-Bro Church is considered to be a representative example of a medieval church in Uppland. Externally the church retains much of its original look, characterised by roughly hewn stones and high Gothic gables, save

3608-407: The commentaries on the ideas of Halford Mackinder . As Zbigniew Brzezinski observed on Eurasia: "... how America 'manages' Eurasia is critical. A power that dominates 'Eurasia' would control two of the world's three most advanced and economically productive regions. A mere glance at the map also suggests that control over 'Eurasia' would almost automatically entail Africa's subordination, rendering

3690-453: The common signatures of the Ice Age . In addition, post-glacial rebound has caused numerous significant changes to coastlines and landscapes over the last several thousand years, and the effects continue to be significant. In Sweden , Lake Mälaren was formerly an arm of the Baltic Sea , but uplift eventually cut it off and led to its becoming a freshwater lake in about the 12th century, at

3772-536: The continents through dry land. This was the case between the British Isles and Europe ( Doggerland ), or between Taiwan, the Indonesian islands and Asia ( Sundaland ). A land bridge also existed between Siberia and Alaska that allowed the migration of people and animals during the last glacial maximum. The fall in sea level also affects the circulation of ocean currents and thus has important impact on climate during

3854-553: The direction of seafloor spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . This shows that the stress due to postglacial rebound had played an important role at deglacial time, but has gradually relaxed so that tectonic stress has become more dominant today. According to the Mohr–Coulomb theory of rock failure, large glacial loads generally suppress earthquakes, but rapid deglaciation promotes earthquakes. According to Wu & Hasagawa,

3936-455: The first stone churches in the area. Archbishop Nathan Söderblom still referred to the church as "the Cathedral of Roslagen". Several details, notably the extensive use of sandstone from Gotland and the church's triumphal cross and baptismal font coming from there, indicate the workshop building the church might have come from Gotland. During the 15th century, the choir was added and

4018-491: The flow law of mantle rocks, which is important to the study of mantle convection, plate tectonics and the thermal evolution of the Earth. It also gives insight into past ice sheet history, which is important to glaciology , paleoclimate , and changes in global sea level. Understanding postglacial rebound is also important to our ability to monitor recent global change. Erratic boulders , U-shaped valleys , drumlins , eskers , kettle lakes , bedrock striations are among

4100-429: The future, and thus is important for water resource management planning. In Sweden Lake Sommen 's outlet in the northwest has a rebound of 2.36 mm/a while in the eastern Svanaviken it is 2.05 mm/a. This means the lake is being slowly tilted and the southeastern shores drowned. Ice, water, and mantle rocks have mass , and as they move around, they exert a gravitational pull on other masses towards them. Thus,

4182-407: The glacial maximum. During deglaciation, the melted ice water returns to the oceans, thus sea level in the ocean increases again. However, geological records of sea level changes show that the redistribution of the melted ice water is not the same everywhere in the oceans. In other words, depending upon the location, the rise in sea level at a certain site may be more than that at another site. This

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4264-449: The heights of ancient beaches in the sea level data and observed land uplift rates (e.g. from GPS or VLBI ) can be used to constrain local ice thickness. A popular ice model deduced this way is the ICE5G model. Because the response of the Earth to changes in ice height is slow, it cannot record rapid fluctuation or surges of ice sheets, thus the ice sheet profiles deduced this way only gives

4346-413: The ice- and ocean-covered regions, and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation. Eurasia Eurasia ( / j ʊəˈr eɪ ʒ ə / yoor- AY -zhə , also UK : /- ʃ ə / -⁠shə ) is the largest continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia . According to some geographers, physiographically , Eurasia

4428-514: The intraplate earthquakes in eastern Canada and may have played some role in triggering earthquakes in the eastern US including the New Madrid earthquakes of 1811 . The situation in northern Europe today is complicated by the current tectonic activities nearby and by coastal loading and weakening. Increasing pressure due to the weight of the ice during glaciation may have suppressed melt generation and volcanic activities below Iceland and Greenland. On

4510-402: The island (up to 5 cm per century). This will eventually lead to an increased risk of floods in southern England and south-western Ireland. Since the glacial isostatic adjustment process causes the land to move relative to the sea, ancient shorelines are found to lie above present day sea level in areas that were once glaciated. On the other hand, places in the peripheral bulge area which

4592-462: The lakes gradually tilt away from the direction of the former ice maximum, such that lake shores on the side of the maximum (typically north) recede and the opposite (southern) shores sink. This causes the formation of new rapids and rivers. For example, Lake Pielinen in Finland, which is large (90 x 30 km) and oriented perpendicularly to the former ice margin, originally drained through an outlet in

4674-454: The land area of Imperial Russia in 1914, including parts of Eastern Europe . One of Russia's main geopolitical interests lies in ever closer integration with those countries that it considers part of "Eurasia." The term Eurasia gained geopolitical reputation as one of the three superstates in 1984 , George Orwell 's novel where constant surveillance and propaganda are strategic elements (introduced as reflexive antagonists ) of

4756-412: The largest horizontal velocity is found near the former ice margin. The situation in North America is less certain; this is due to the sparse distribution of GPS stations in northern Canada, which is rather inaccessible. The combination of horizontal and vertical motion changes the tilt of the surface. That is, locations farther north rise faster, an effect that becomes apparent in lakes. The bottoms of

4838-636: The least-densely populated. Eurasia has been the host of many ancient civilizations, including those based in Mesopotamia , the Indus Valley and China. In the Axial Age (mid- first millennium BCE ), a continuous belt of civilizations stretched through the Eurasian subtropical zone from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This belt became the mainstream of world history for two millennia. New connections emerged between

4920-416: The location and dates of terminal moraines tell us the areal extent and retreat of past ice sheets. Physics of glaciers gives us the theoretical profile of ice sheets at equilibrium, it also says that the thickness and horizontal extent of equilibrium ice sheets are closely related to the basal condition of the ice sheets. Thus the volume of ice locked up is proportional to their instantaneous area. Finally,

5002-424: The mantle, it will take many thousands of years for the land to reach an equilibrium level. The uplift has taken place in two distinct stages. The initial uplift following deglaciation was almost immediate due to the elastic response of the crust as the ice load was removed. After this elastic phase, uplift proceeded by slow viscous flow at an exponentially decreasing rate. Today, typical uplift rates are of

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5084-513: The merging of Siberia , Kazakhstania , and Baltica , which was joined to Laurentia (now North America), to form Euramerica . This is a list of the longest rivers in Eurasia. Included are all rivers over 3,000 km (1,900 mi). All of the 100 highest mountains on Earth are in Eurasia, in the Himalaya , Karakoram , Hindu Kush , Pamir , Hengduan , and Tian Shan mountain ranges, and all peaks above 7,000 metres are in these ranges and

5166-476: The middle of the lake near Nunnanlahti to Lake Höytiäinen . The change of tilt caused Pielinen to burst through the Uimaharju esker at the southwestern end of the lake, creating a new river ( Pielisjoki ) that runs to the sea via Lake Pyhäselkä to Lake Saimaa . The effects are similar to that concerning seashores, but occur above sea level. Tilting of land will also affect the flow of water in lakes and rivers in

5248-442: The ocean tides. In the words of Wu and Peltier, the solution of the SLE yields the space– and time–dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model. The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier, Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi. In its simplest form,

5330-541: The order of 1 cm/year or less. In northern Europe, this is clearly shown by the GPS data obtained by the BIFROST GPS network; for example in Finland , the total area of the country is growing by about seven square kilometers per year. Studies suggest that rebound will continue for at least another 10,000 years. The total uplift from the end of deglaciation depends on the local ice load and could be several hundred metres near

5412-587: The other hand, decreasing pressure due to deglaciation can increase the melt production and volcanic activities by 20-30 times. Recent global warming has caused mountain glaciers and the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica to melt and global sea level to rise. Therefore, monitoring sea level rise and the mass balance of ice sheets and glaciers allows people to understand more about global warming. Recent rise in sea levels has been monitored by tide gauges and satellite altimetry (e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon ). As well as

5494-502: The present day villages on the west coast set back unexpectedly far from the shore. These effects are quite dramatic at the village of Alby , for example, where the Iron Age inhabitants were known to subsist on substantial coastal fishing. As a result of post-glacial rebound, the Gulf of Bothnia is predicted to eventually close up at Kvarken in more than 2,000 years. The Kvarken is a UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site , selected as

5576-539: The priest removes the statue and so illustrates Christ has risen from the dead. Among later furnishings, the pulpit is from circa 1700 and the organ from 1838. The church also has some carved wooden epitaphs of families from the Swedish nobility on display. 59°49′47″N 18°44′13″E  /  59.82972°N 18.73694°E  / 59.82972; 18.73694 Post-glacial rebound Post-glacial rebound (also called isostatic rebound or crustal rebound )

5658-472: The processes of ocean siphoning and continental levering , the effects of post-glacial rebound on sea level are felt globally far from the locations of current and former ice sheets. During the last glacial period , much of northern Europe , Asia , North America , Greenland and Antarctica were covered by ice sheets , which reached up to three kilometres thick during the glacial maximum about 20,000 years ago. The enormous weight of this ice caused

5740-435: The rebound stress that is available to trigger earthquakes today is of the order of 1 MPa. This stress level is not large enough to rupture intact rocks but is large enough to reactivate pre-existing faults that are close to failure. Thus, both postglacial rebound and past tectonics play important roles in today's intraplate earthquakes in eastern Canada and southeast US. Generally postglacial rebound stress could have triggered

5822-454: The shores, a collective holding corporation. The sea-level equation ( SLE ) is a linear integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the PGR. The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888, when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of

5904-420: The state of stress at any location continuously changes in time. The changes in the orientation of the state of stress is recorded in the postglacial faults in southeastern Canada. When the postglacial faults formed at the end of deglaciation 9000 years ago, the horizontal principal stress orientation was almost perpendicular to the former ice margin, but today the orientation is in the northeast–southwest, along

5986-427: The strikingly different Fleming-Oxenstierna burial chapel. The interior features frescoes, largely purely ornamental of foliage. Church furnishings include a baptismal font and triumphal cross made on Gotland. Also housed is a wooden sculpture of a male saint, traditionally considered a depiction of St. Erik but probably Saint Olaf . The statue has served as a model for the coat of arms of Stockholm, of which St. Erik

6068-508: The subregions of Eurasia from the Age of Discovery onwards, with the Iberians discovering new maritime routes in the 1490s, and the 1869 completion of the Suez Canal having paved the way for direct passage through the Indo-Mediterranean and the wave of Western European "New Imperialism" that dominated Africa and Asia until the mid-20th century. The communist presence in Eurasia (primarily driven by

6150-441: The surface of Earth. The viscosity of the mantle is important in understanding mantle convection , plate tectonics , the dynamical processes in Earth, and the thermal state and thermal evolution of Earth. However viscosity is difficult to observe because creep experiments of mantle rocks at natural strain rates would take thousands of years to observe and the ambient temperature and pressure conditions are not easy to attain for

6232-460: The surface of the Earth 's crust to deform and warp downward, forcing the viscoelastic mantle material to flow away from the loaded region. At the end of each glacial period when the glaciers retreated, the removal of this weight led to slow (and still ongoing) uplift or rebound of the land and the return flow of mantle material back under the deglaciated area. Due to the extreme viscosity of

6314-464: The time when Stockholm was founded at its outlet . Marine seashells found in Lake Ontario sediments imply a similar event in prehistoric times. Other pronounced effects can be seen on the island of Öland , Sweden, which has little topographic relief due to the presence of the very level Stora Alvaret . The rising land has caused the Iron Age settlement area to recede from the Baltic Sea , making

6396-481: The topography of Earth's surface affects the long-wavelength components of the gravity field. The changing gravity field can be detected by repeated land measurements with absolute gravimeters and recently by the GRACE satellite mission. The change in long-wavelength components of Earth's gravity field also perturbs the orbital motion of satellites and has been detected by LAGEOS satellite motion. The vertical datum

6478-581: The world are Java, Honshu, Great Britain, Luzon, and Sumatra. Other Eurasian islands with large populations include Mindanao, Taiwan , Salsette , Borneo, Sri Lanka, Sulawesi, Kyushu , and Hainan . The most densely-populated islands in Eurasia are Caubian Gamay Island , Ap Lei Chau , and Navotas Island . In the Arctic Ocean, Severny Island , Nordaustlandet , October Revolution Island , and Bolshevik Island are Eurasia's largest uninhabited islands, and Kotelny Island , Alexandra Land , and Spitsbergen are

6560-490: Was not a lowering of sea levels but an uneven rise of land. In 1865 Thomas Jamieson came up with a theory that the rise of land was connected with the ice age that had been first discovered in 1837. The theory was accepted after investigations by Gerard De Geer of old shorelines in Scandinavia published in 1890. In areas where the rising of land is seen, it is necessary to define the exact limits of property. In Finland,

6642-422: Was the magnitude 8 New Madrid earthquake that occurred in mid-continental US in the year 1811. Glacial loads provided more than 30 MPa of vertical stress in northern Canada and more than 20 MPa in northern Europe during glacial maximum. This vertical stress is supported by the mantle and the flexure of the lithosphere . Since the mantle and the lithosphere continuously respond to the changing ice and water loads,

6724-418: Was uplifted during glaciation now begins to subside. Therefore, ancient beaches are found below present day sea level in the bulge area. The "relative sea level data", which consists of height and age measurements of the ancient beaches around the world, tells us that glacial isostatic adjustment proceeded at a higher rate near the end of deglaciation than today. The present-day uplift motion in northern Europe

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