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121-400: The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Family Studies states that "Romantic love, based on the model of mutual attraction and on a connection between two people that bonds them as a couple, creates the conditions for overturning the model of family and marriage that it engenders." This indicates that romantic love can be the founding of attraction between two people. This term was primarily used by

242-400: A "complement" or completing of themselves in a partner, as in the cliché that "opposites attract", but with the added consideration that both partners manifest this attraction for the sake of the species: But what ultimately draws two individuals of different sex exclusively to each other with such power is the will-to-live which manifests itself in the whole species, and here anticipates, in

363-402: A Daughter's Eye , Mary Catherine Bateson strongly implies that the relationship between Benedict and Mead was partly sexual. Mead never openly identified herself as lesbian or bisexual . In her writings, she proposed that it is to be expected that an individual's sexual orientation may evolve throughout life. She spent her last years in a close personal and professional collaboration with

484-602: A Western context. Despite its feminist roots, Mead's work on women and men was also criticized by Betty Friedan on the basis that it contributes to infantilizing women. In 1926, there was much debate about race and intelligence . Mead felt the methodologies involved in the experimental psychology research supporting arguments of racial superiority in intelligence were substantially flawed. In "The Methodology of Racial Testing: Its Significance for Sociology," Mead proposes that there are three problems with testing for racial differences in intelligence. First, there are concerns with

605-448: A biological definition of romantic love: Romantic love is a motivational state typically associated with a desire for long-term mating with a particular individual. It occurs across the lifespan and is associated with distinctive cognitive, emotional, behavioral, social, genetic, neural, and endocrine activity in both sexes. Throughout much of the life course, it serves mate choice , courtship , sex , and pair-bonding functions. It

726-452: A category of affective computing that incorporates real-time software adaption to the psychophysiological activity of the user. The main goal of this is to build a computer that responds to user emotion, cognition and motivation. The approach is to enable implicit and symmetrical human-computer communication by granting the software access to a representation of the user's psychological status. There are several possible methods to represent

847-504: A close friend of her instructor Ruth Benedict . However, Sapir's conservative stances about marriage and women's roles were unacceptable to Mead, and as Mead left to do field work in Samoa , they separated permanently. Mead received news of Sapir's remarriage while she was living in Samoa. There, she later burned their correspondence on a beach. Between 1925 and 1926, she was in Samoa from where on

968-497: A complexity that was steeped in a framework of tradition, which stemmed from theories of etiquette derived out of chivalry as a moral code of conduct. Courtly love and the notion of domnei were often the subjects of troubadours , and could be typically found in artistic endeavors such as lyrical narratives and poetic prose of the time. Since marriage was commonly a formal arrangement, courtly love sometimes permitted expressions of emotional closeness that may have been lacking from

1089-426: A cynical view, it does emphasize the mechanical in love relations. In that sense, it does resonate with capitalism and cynicism native to post-modernity. Romance in this context leans more on fashion and irony, though these were important for it in less emancipated times. Sexual revolutions have brought change to these areas. Wit or irony therefore encompass an instability of romance that is not entirely new but has

1210-504: A different cultural pattern. In brief, her comparative study revealed a full range of contrasting gender roles: Deborah Gewertz (1981) studied the Chambri (called Tchambuli by Mead) in 1974–1975 and found no evidence of such gender roles. Gewertz states that as far back in history as there is evidence (1850s), Chambri men dominated the women, controlled their produce, and made all important political decisions. In later years, there has been

1331-807: A diligent search for societies in which women dominate men or for signs of such past societies, but none has been found (Bamberger 1974). Jessie Bernard criticised Mead's interpretations of her findings and argued that Mead's descriptions were subjective. Bernard argues that Mead claimed the Mundugumor women were temperamentally identical to men, but her reports indicate that there were in fact sex differences; Mundugumor women hazed each other less than men hazed each other and made efforts to make themselves physically desirable to others, married women had fewer affairs than married men, women were not taught to use weapons, women were used less as hostages and Mundugumor men engaged in physical fights more often than women. In contrast,

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1452-637: A form of religion that gave an expression of the faith with which she had been formally acquainted, Christianity. In doing so, she found the rituals of the Episcopal Church to fit the expression of religion she was seeking. Mead studied one year, 1919, at DePauw University , then transferred to Barnard College . Mead earned her bachelor's degree from Barnard in 1923, began studying with professors Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict at Columbia University , and earned her master's degree in 1924. Mead set out in 1925 to do fieldwork in Samoa . In 1926, she joined

1573-526: A framework of concern for the reproduction of bloodlines according to financial, professional, and sometimes political interests." Anthony Giddens , in The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Society , states that romantic love introduced the idea of a narrative to an individual's life, and telling a story is a root meaning of the term romance . According to Giddens,

1694-426: A knight's devotion to her, coupled with an obligatory respect for all women, factored prominently in the identity of medieval knighthood. Members of the aristocracy were schooled in the principles of chivalry, which facilitated important changes in attitudes regarding the value of women. Modern historians such as D. W. Robertson Jr. , John C. Moore, and E. Talbot Donaldson consider the concept of courtly love to be

1815-509: A lab setting. Even supposedly discrete emotional states fail to show specificity. For example, some emotional typologists consider fear to have subtypes, which might involve fleeing or freezing, both of which can have distinct physiological patterns and potentially distinct neural circuitry. As such no definitive correlation can be drawn linking specific autonomic patterns to discrete emotions, causing emotion theorists to rethink classical definitions of emotions. Physiological computing represents

1936-597: A lack mainly to Sigmund Freud , and Deleuze often criticized it. Victor C. De Munck and David B. Kronenfeld conducted a study named "Romantic Love in the United States: Applying Cultural Models Theory and Methods". This study was conducted through an investigation of two cultural model cases. It states that in America, "we have a rather and dynamic cultural model that is falsifiable and predictive of successful love relationships" Which supports that

2057-499: A lack of being, namely, the being or form of beauty . Though there are many theories of romantic love—such as that of Robert Sternberg , in which it is merely a mean combining liking and sexual desire —the major theories involve far more insight. For most of the 20th century, Freud's theory of the family drama dominated theories of romance and sexual relationships. This gave rise to a few counter-theories. Theorists like Deleuze counter Freud and Jacques Lacan by attempting to return to

2178-543: A meeting is asked for with the avowed intention of sexual gratification. If the invitation is accepted, the satisfaction of the boy's desire eliminates the romantic frame of mind, the craving for the unattainable and mysterious." "an important point is that the pair's community of interest is limited to the sexual relation only. The couple share a bed and nothing else. ... there are no services to be mutually rendered, they have no obligation to help each other in any way..." The aborigines of Mangaia island of Polynesia, who mastered

2299-555: A modern invention. Donaldson called it "The Myth of Courtly Love," on the basis that it is not supported in medieval texts. Other scholars consider courtly love to have been purely a literary convention. Examples of allegorical use of the concept can be found in the Middle Ages, but there are no historical records that offer evidence of its presence in reality. Historian John Benton found no documentary evidence in law codes, court cases, chronicles or other historical documents. Romantic love

2420-446: A more central social role, fine-tuned to certain modern peculiarities and subversion originating in various social revolutions, culminating mostly in the 1960s. The process of courtship also contributed to Arthur Schopenhauer 's pessimism, despite his own romantic success, and he argued that to be rid of the challenge of courtship would drive people to suicide with boredom. Schopenhauer theorized that individuals seek partners looking for

2541-437: A more naturalistic philosophy: René Girard argues that romantic attraction is a product of jealousy and rivalry—particularly in a triangular form . Girard, in any case, downplays romance's individuality in favor of jealousy and the love triangle , arguing that romantic attraction arises primarily in the observed attraction between two others. A natural objection is that this is circular reasoning , but Girard means that

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2662-452: A positivist stance, Orans's assessment of the controversy was that Mead did not formulate her research agenda in scientific terms and that "her work may properly be damned with the harshest scientific criticism of all, that it is ' not even wrong '." On the whole, anthropologists have rejected the notion that Mead's conclusions rested on the validity of a single interview with a single person and find instead that Mead based her conclusions on

2783-451: A psychophysiologist from a physiological psychologist , which have two very different perspectives. Psychologists are interested in why we may fear spiders and physiologists may be interested in the input/output system of the amygdala . A psychophysiologist will attempt to link the two. Psychophysiologists generally study the psychological/physiological link in intact human subjects. While early psychophysiologists almost always examined

2904-524: A real part of marriage. The marriages that did arise outside of arranged marriage were most often spontaneous relationships. In Ladies of the Leisure Class , Rutgers University professor Bonnie G. Smith depicts courtship and marriage rituals that may be viewed as oppressive to modern people. She writes, "When the young women of the Nord married, they did so without illusions of love and romance. They acted within

3025-451: A small measure of attraction reaches a critical point insofar as it is caught up in mimesis . Shakespeare's plays A Midsummer Night's Dream , As You Like It , and The Winter's Tale are the best known examples of competitive-induced romance. Girard's theory of mimetic desire is controversial because of its alleged sexism . This view has to some extent supplanted its predecessor, Freudian Oedipal theory. It may find some spurious support in

3146-418: A speech praising the deity Eros . When his turn comes, Aristophanes says in his mythical speech that sexual partners seek each other because they are descended from beings with spherical torsos, two sets of human limbs, genitalia on each side, and two faces back to back. Their three forms included the three permutations of pairs of gender (i.e. one masculine and masculine, another feminine and feminine, and

3267-608: A stressful situation will produce a result in the cardiovascular system such as a change in heart rate (HR), vasodilation / vasoconstriction , myocardial contractility , or stroke volume . Overlaps in areas of interest between psychophysiologists and physiological psychologist may consist of observing how one cardiovascular event may influence another cardiovascular or endocrine event; or how activation of one neural brain structure exerts excitatory activity in another neural structure which then induces an inhibitory effect in some other system. Often, physiological psychologists examine

3388-729: A very different light than they do in Freeman's work. Indeed, the immense significance that Freeman gave his critique looks like 'much ado about nothing' to many of his critics. While nurture-oriented anthropologists are more inclined to agree with Mead's conclusions, some non-anthropologists who take a nature-oriented approach follow Freeman's lead, such as Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker , biologist Richard Dawkins , evolutionary psychologist David Buss , science writer Matt Ridley , classicist Mary Lefkowitz . In her 2015 book Galileo's Middle Finger , Alice Dreger argues that Freeman's accusations were unfounded and misleading. A detailed review of

3509-499: A very general idea termed "the passions", and this general interest was distinct from the contemporary idea of "passionate" now equated with "romantic". Love was a central topic again in the subsequent movement of Romanticism , which focused on such things as absorption in nature and the absolute , as well as platonic and unrequited love in German philosophy and literature. French philosopher Gilles Deleuze linked this concept of love as

3630-498: A way that would parallel modern romance. Marriages were often arranged, but the wishes of those to be wed were considered, as affection was important to primitive tribes. In the majority of primitive societies studied by the anthropologists, the extramarital and premarital relations between men and women were completely free. The members of the temporary couples were sexually attracted to each other more than to anyone else, but in all other respects their relationships had not demonstrated

3751-500: Is a phenomenon unique to Western cultures and first expressed by the troubadours of the Middle Ages." The word "romance" is derived from the Latin adverb Romanice , meaning "in the vernacular," in reference to the languages Old French and Old Occitan . These languages were descendants of Latin , the language of the Romans . Evolutions of the word Romanice were used to refer first to

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3872-488: Is a natural drive as powerful as hunger. Psychologist Karen Horney in her article "The Problem of the Monogamous Ideal", indicates that the overestimation of love leads to disillusionment; the desire to possess the partner results in the partner wanting to escape; and the friction against sex result in non-fulfillment. Disillusionment plus the desire to escape plus non-fulfillment result in a secret hostility, which causes

3993-478: Is a suite of adaptations and by-products that arose sometime during the recent evolutionary history of humans. Anthropologist Charles Lindholm defined love as "any intense attraction that involves the idealization of the other, within an erotic context, with expectation of enduring sometime into the future". The word "romance" comes from the French vernacular where initially it indicated a verse narrative . The word

4114-481: Is an accepted version of this page Margaret Mead (December 16, 1901 – November 15, 1978) was an American cultural anthropologist , author and speaker, who appeared frequently in the mass media during the 1960s and the 1970s. She earned her bachelor's degree at Barnard College of Columbia University and her M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from Columbia. Mead served as president of the American Association for

4235-550: Is an accurate one-to-one representation of a relevant psychological dimension such as mental effort, task engagement and frustration. Physiological computing systems all contain an element that may be termed as an adaptive controller that may be used to represent the player. This adaptive controller represents the decision-making process underlying software adaptation. In their simplest form, adaptive controllers are expressed in Boolean statements. Adaptive controllers encompass not only

4356-541: Is combined with strong character and emotions. Unrequited love is typical of the period of romanticism , but the term is distinct from any romance that might arise within it. Romantic love may also be classified according to two categories, "popular romance" and "divine or spiritual" romance: Greek philosophers and authors have had many theories of love. Some of these theories are presented in Plato 's Symposium . Six Athenian friends, including Socrates , drink wine and each give

4477-421: Is contrasted with platonic love , which in all usages precludes sexual relations, yet only in the modern usage does it take on a fully nonsexual sense, rather than the classical sense, in which sexual drives are sublimated. Unrequited love can be romantic in different ways: comic, tragic, or in the sense that sublimation itself is comparable to romance, where the spirituality of both art and egalitarian ideals

4598-710: Is credited with the pluralization of the term " semiotics ". In 1948 Mead was quoted in News Chronicle as supporting the deployment of Iban mercenaries to the Malayan Emergency , arguing that using Ibans (Dyaks) who enjoyed headhunting was no worse than deploying white troops who had been taught that killing was wrong. In later life, Mead was a mentor to many young anthropologists and sociologists, including Jean Houston , author Gail Sheehy , John Langston Gwaltney , Roger Sandall , filmmaker Timothy Asch , and anthropologist Susan C. Scrimshaw , who later received

4719-727: Is mentioned in her 1984 biography by Jane Howard . On Manus, she studied the Manus people of the south coast village of Peri. "Over the next five decades Mead would come back oftener to Peri than to any other field site of her career.' Mead has been credited with persuading the American Jewish Committee to sponsor a project to study European Jewish villages, shtetls , in which a team of researchers would conduct mass interviews with Jewish immigrants living in New York City. The resulting book, widely cited for decades, allegedly created

4840-502: Is popular for American people to successfully share feelings of romanticism with each other's partners. It describes American culture by stating: "The model is unique in that it combines passion with comfort and friendship as properties of romantic love." One of its main contributions is advising the reader that "For successful romantic love relations, a person would feel excited about meeting their beloved; make passionate and intimate love as opposed to only physical love; feel comfortable with

4961-594: Is still much cultural variation throughout Melanesia, especially in the large island of New Guinea . Moreover, anthropologists often overlook the significance of networks of political influence among females. The formal male-dominated institutions typical of some areas of high population density were not, for example, present in the same way in Oksapmin , West Sepik Province , a more sparsely-populated area. Cultural patterns there were different from, say, Mount Hagen . They were closer to those described by Mead. Mead stated that

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5082-615: Is the branch of psychology that is concerned with the physiological bases of psychological processes. While psychophysiology was a general broad field of research in the 1960s and 1970s, it has now become quite specialized, based on methods, topic of studies and scientific traditions. Methods vary as combinations of electrophysiological methods (such as EEG ), neuroimaging ( MRI , PET ), and neurochemistry . Topics have branched into subspecializations such as social, sport, cognitive, cardiovascular, clinical and other branches of psychophysiology. Some people have difficulty distinguishing

5203-573: Is there at this point, any display of affection between Isabella and the Duke, if by affection we mean something concerned with sexual attraction. The two at the end of the play love each other as they love virtue." In Romeo and Juliet , in saying "all combined, save what thou must combine By holy marriage", Romeo implies that it is not marriage with Juliet that he seeks but simply to be joined with her romantically. Kierkegaard addressed these ideas in works such as Either/Or and Stages on Life's Way : In

5324-433: Is true both of individuals and of nations. In times in which there were no difficulties standing in the way of sexual satisfaction, such as perhaps during the decline of the ancient civilizations, love became worthless and life empty." Some believe that romantic love evolved independently in multiple cultures. For example, in an article presented by Henry Grunebaum, he argues " therapists mistakenly believe that romantic love

5445-479: The American Museum of Natural History , New York City, as assistant curator. She received her Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1929. Mead was married three times. After a six-year engagement, she married her first husband (1923–1928), Luther Cressman , an American theology student who later became an anthropologist. Before departing for Samoa in 1925, Mead had a short affair with the linguist Edward Sapir ,

5566-610: The Arapesh people , also in the Sepik, were pacifists , but she noted that they on occasion engage in warfare. Her observations about the sharing of garden plots among the Arapesh, the egalitarian emphasis in child rearing, and her documentation of predominantly peaceful relations among relatives are very different from the "big man" displays of dominance that were documented in more stratified New Guinea cultures, such as by Andrew Strathern . They are

5687-532: The Jewish mother stereotype , a mother intensely loving but controlling to the point of smothering and engendering guilt in her children through the suffering she professed to undertake for their sakes. Mead worked for the RAND Corporation, a US Air Force military-funded private research organization, from 1948 to 1950 to study Russian culture and attitudes toward authority. As an Anglican Christian, Mead played

5808-541: The Society for Applied Anthropology in 1950 and of the American Anthropological Association in 1960. In the mid-1960s, Mead joined forces with the communications theorist Rudolf Modley in jointly establishing an organization called Glyphs Inc., whose goal was to create a universal graphic symbol language to be understood by any members of culture, no matter how "primitive." In the 1960s, Mead served as

5929-461: The autonomic nervous system . More recently, psychophysiologists have been equally, or potentially more, interested in the central nervous system , exploring cortical brain potentials such as the many types of event-related potentials (ERPs), brain waves , and utilizing advanced technology such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), MRI , PET , MEG, and other neuroimagery techniques. A psychophysiologist may look at how exposure to

6050-1114: The self-assessment manikin , or measures of interoceptive visceral awareness such as heartbeat detection. Merits to self-report are an emphasis on accurately understand the participants' subjective experience and understanding their perception; however, its pitfalls include the possibility of participants misunderstanding a scale or incorrectly recalling events. Physiological responses also can be measured via instruments that read bodily events such as heart rate change, electrodermal activity (EDA) , muscle tension, and cardiac output. Many indices are part of modern psychophysiology, including brain waves (electroencephalography, EEG), fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), electrodermal activity (a standardized term encompassing skin conductance response, SCR, and galvanic skin response, GSR), cardiovascular measures ( heart rate , HR; beats per minute , BPM; heart rate variability , HRV; vasomotor activity), muscle activity ( electromyography , EMG), electrogastrogram (EGG) changes in pupil diameter with thought and emotion ( pupillometry ), eye movements, recorded via

6171-408: The "western countries after the 1800s were socialized into, love is the necessary prerequisite for starting an intimate relationship and represents the foundation on which to build the next steps in a family." Alternatively, Collins Dictionary describes romantic love as "an intensity and idealization of a love relationship, in which the other is imbued with extraordinary virtue, beauty, etc., so that

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6292-600: The 1985 Margaret Mead Award for her research on cultural factors affecting public health delivery. In 1972, Mead was one of the two rapporteurs from NGOs to the UN Conference on the Human Environment. In 1976, she was a key participant at UN Habitat I , the first UN forum on human settlements. Mead died of pancreatic cancer on November 15, 1978, and is buried at Trinity Episcopal Church Cemetery, Buckingham , Pennsylvania. Mead's first ethnographic work described

6413-547: The Advancement of Science in 1975. Mead was a communicator of anthropology in modern American and Western culture and was often controversial as an academic. Her reports detailing the attitudes towards sex in South Pacific and Southeast Asian traditional cultures influenced the 1960s sexual revolution . She was a proponent of broadening sexual conventions within the context of Western cultural traditions. Margaret Mead,

6534-564: The Arapesh were also described as equal in temperament, but Bernard states that Mead's own writings indicate that men physically fought over women, yet women did not fight over men. The Arapesh also seemed to have some conception of sex differences in temperament, as they would sometimes describe a woman as acting like a particularly quarrelsome man. Bernard also questioned if the behaviour of men and women in those societies differed as much from Western behaviour as Mead claimed. Bernard argued that some of her descriptions could be equally descriptive of

6655-721: The Axis powers to try and foster peace between the two sides. She was curator of ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History from 1946 to 1969. She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1948, the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1975, and the American Philosophical Society in 1977. She taught at The New School and Columbia University, where she

6776-527: The English language, used the word "love" with a completely different meaning as compared to that which is usual for the person brought up in the European culture. Donald S. Marshall: "Mangaian informants and co-workers were quite interested in the European concept of "love". English-speaking Mangaians had previously used the term only in a physical sense of sexual desire; to say, "I love you" in English to another person

6897-581: The Romance languages and eventually also to the works composed in them. The genre of chivalric romance initially focused on the heroic military deeds of knights, which led to the use of the word romantic in the sense of chivalrous . As the genre evolved, starting after the Renaissance and especially in the Romantic period , it focused increasingly on love in the modern sense. The general idea of "romantic love" in

7018-564: The Samoan islanders whom Mead had depicted in such utopian terms were intensely competitive and had murder and rape rates higher than those in the United States. Furthermore, the men were intensely sexually jealous, which contrasted sharply with Mead's depiction of "free love" among the Samoans. Freeman's book was controversial in its turn and was met with considerable backlash and harsh criticism from

7139-642: The Vice President of the New York Academy of Sciences . She held various positions in the American Association for the Advancement of Science , notably president in 1975 and chair of the executive committee of the board of directors in 1976. She was a recognizable figure in academia and usually wore a distinctive cape and carried a walking stick. Mead was a key participant in the Macy conferences on cybernetics and an editor of their proceedings. Mead's address to

7260-515: The Western tradition is believed to have originated in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, primarily from that of the French culture. This idea is what has spurred the connection between the words "romantic" and "lover", thus coining English phrases for romantic love such as "loving like the Romans do". The precise origins of such a connection are unknown, however. Although the word "romance" or

7381-459: The ability to validly equate one's test score with what Mead refers to as racial admixture or how much Negro or Indian blood an individual possesses. She also considers whether that information is relevant when interpreting IQ scores. Mead remarks that a genealogical method could be considered valid if it could be "subjected to extensive verification." In addition, the experiment would need a steady control group to establish whether racial admixture

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7502-418: The anthropologist Rhoda Metraux with whom she lived from 1955 until her death in 1978. Letters between the two published in 2006 with the permission of Mead's daughter clearly express a romantic relationship. Mead had two sisters, Elizabeth and Priscilla, and a brother, Richard. Elizabeth Mead (1909–1983), an artist and teacher, married the cartoonist William Steig , and Priscilla Mead (1911–1959) married

7623-617: The anthropology community, but it was received enthusiastically by communities of scientists who believed that sexual mores were more or less universal across cultures. Later in 1983, a special session of Mead's supporters in the American Anthropological Association (to which Freeman was not invited) declared it to be "poorly written, unscientific, irresponsible and misleading." Some anthropologists who studied Samoan culture argued in favor of Freeman's findings and contradicted those of Mead, but others argued that Freeman's work did not invalidate Mead's work because Samoan culture had been changed by

7744-574: The author Leo Rosten . Mead's brother, Richard, was a professor. Mead was also the aunt of Jeremy Steig . During World War II, Mead along with other social scientist like Gregory Bateson and Ruth Benedict, took on several different responsibilities. In 1940, Mead joined the Committee for National Morale. In 1941, she also contributed to an essay that was released in the Applied Anthropology, which created strategies to help produce propaganda with

7865-492: The autonomic nervous system was generated by constructing facial prototypes of emotion muscle by muscle and by reliving past emotional experiences. The autonomic activity produced distinguished not only between positive and negative emotions, but also among negative emotions". However, as more studies were conducted, more variability was found in ANS responses to discrete emotion inductions, not only among individuals but also over time in

7986-479: The beloved, behaving in a companionable, friendly way with one's partner; listen to the other's concerns, offering to help out in various ways if necessary; and, all the while, keeping a mental ledger of the degree to which altruism and passion are mutual." Shakespeare and Søren Kierkegaard share a similar viewpoint that marriage and romance are not harmoniously in tune with each other. In Shakespeare's Measure for Measure , for example, "...there has not been, nor

8107-465: The biggest problem of all. Similarly, Stephen J. Gould finds three main problems with intelligence testing in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man that relate to Mead's view of the problem of determining whether there are racial differences in intelligence. In 1929, Mead and Fortune visited Manus , now the northernmost province of Papua New Guinea, and traveled there by boat from Rabaul . She amply describes her stay there in her autobiography, and it

8228-591: The characteristics of romantic love. In the book of Boris Shipov Theory of Romantic Love the corresponding evidences of anthropologists have been collected. Lewis H. Morgan : "the passion of love was unknown among the barbarians. They are below the sentiment, which is the offspring of civilization and super added refinement of love was unknown among the barbarians." Margaret Mead : "Romantic love as it occurs in our civilisation, inextricably bound up with ideas of monogamy, exclusiveness, jealousy and undeviating fidelity does not occur in Samoa." Bronislaw Malinowski : "Though

8349-427: The community. Mead also found that marriage is regarded as a social and economic arrangement in which wealth, rank, and job skills of the husband and wife are taken into consideration. Aside from marriage, Mead identified two types of sex relations: love affairs and adultery. The exceptions to these practices include women married to chiefs and young women who hold the title of taupo, a ceremonial princess, whose virginity

8470-563: The controversy by Paul Shankman, published by the University of Wisconsin Press in 2009, supports the contention that Mead's research was essentially correct and concludes that Freeman cherry-picked his data and misrepresented both Mead and Samoan culture. A survey of 301 anthropology faculty in the United States in 2016 had two thirds agreeing with a statement that Mead "romanticizes the sexual freedom of Samoan adolescents" and half agreeing that it

8591-455: The decision-making rules, but also the psychophysiological inference that is implicit in the quantification of those trigger points used to activate the rules. The representation of the player using an adaptive controller can become very complex and often only one-dimensional. The loop used to describe this process is known as the biocybernetic loop. The biocybernetic loop describes the closed loop system that receives psychophysiological data from

8712-436: The effects that they study in infrahuman subjects using surgical or invasive techniques and processes. Psychophysiology is closely related to the field of neuroscience , which primarily concerns itself with relationships between psychological events and brain processes. Psychophysiology is also related to the medical disciplines, such as endocrinology , psychosomatics and psychopharmacology . While psychophysiology

8833-642: The electro-oculogram (EOG) and direction-of-gaze methods, cardiodynamics, recorded via impedance cardiography , and grip force. These measures are beneficial because they provide accurate and perceiver-independent objective data recorded by machinery. The downsides, however, are that any physical activity or motion can alter responses, and basal levels of arousal and responsiveness can differ among individuals and even between situations. Neurochemical methods are used to study functionality and processes associated to neurotransmitters and neuropeptides Finally, one can measure overt action or behavior, which involves

8954-601: The equivalents thereof may not have the same connotation in other cultures, the general idea of "romantic love" appears to have crossed cultures and been accepted as a concept at one point in time or another. The conception of romantic love was popularized in Western culture by the concept of courtly love . Knights of the Middle Ages were thought to have engaged in non-sexual relationships with women of nobility whom they served. These relations were highly elaborate and ritualized in

9075-540: The first of five children, was born in Philadelphia but raised in nearby Doylestown, Pennsylvania . Her father, Edward Sherwood Mead, was a professor of finance at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania , and her mother, Emily (née Fogg) Mead, was a sociologist who studied Italian immigrants. Her sister Katharine (1906–1907) died at the age of nine months. That was a traumatic event for Mead, who had named

9196-549: The first place, I find it comical that all men are in love and want to be in love, and yet one never can get any illumination upon the question what the lovable, i.e., the proper object of love, really is. In his 2008 book How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time , British writer Iain King tried to establish rules for romance applicable across most cultures. He concluded on six rules, including: Many theorists attempt to analyze

9317-413: The foreword to Coming of Age in Samoa , Mead's advisor, Franz Boas , wrote of the book's significance: Courtesy, modesty, good manners, conformity to definite ethical standards are universal, but what constitutes courtesy, modesty, very good manners, and definite ethical standards is not universal. It is instructive to know that standards differ in the most unexpected ways. In this way, the book tackled

9438-939: The general public. Orans points out that Freeman's basic criticisms, that Mead was duped by ceremonial virgin Fa'apua'a Fa'amu, who later swore to Freeman that she had played a joke on Mead, were equivocal for several reasons. Mead was well aware of the forms and frequency of Samoan joking, she provided a careful account of the sexual restrictions on ceremonial virgins that corresponds to Fa'apua'a Fa'auma'a's account to Freeman, and Mead's notes make clear that she had reached her conclusions about Samoan sexuality before meeting Fa'apua'a Fa'amu. Orans points out that Mead's data support several different conclusions and that Mead's conclusions hinge on an interpretive , rather than positivist , approach to culture. Orans went on to point out concerning Mead's work elsewhere that her own notes do not support her published conclusive claims. Evaluating Mead's work in Samoa from

9559-504: The girl, and thoughts of her lost sister permeated her daydreams for many years. Her family moved frequently and so her early education was directed by her grandmother until, at age 11, she was enrolled by her family at Buckingham Friends School in Lahaska , Pennsylvania. Her family owned the Longland farm from 1912 to 1926. Born into a family of various religious outlooks, she searched for

9680-466: The hand of a maiden he loved. The Bemba were plainly bewildered, but remained silent. Finally an old chief spoke up, voicing the feelings of all present in the simplest of questions: "Why not take another girl?" he asked. The earliest recorded marriages in Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, and among Hebrews were used to secure alliances and produce offspring. It was not until the Middle Ages that love began to be

9801-456: The heterosexual population. Anthropologist and author Helen Fisher has argued that romantic love is a mammalian brain system evolved for selecting a preferred mating partner. Fisher's team has proposed that romantic love may have evolved around the time of bipedalism, when new mothers needed additional protection and provision while having to carry their young. A 2023 paper by Adam Bode has argued that while Fisher's evolutionary theory has been

9922-457: The idea of romantic love did not exist at all. Passionate individual attachments are evidently seen as threatening to tribal values and tribal authority." Dr. Audrey Richards, an anthropologist who lived among the Bemba of Northern Rhodesia in the 1930s, once related to a group of them an English folk-fable about a young prince who climbed glass mountains, crossed chasms, and fought dragons, all to obtain

10043-448: The impact of psychological states on physiological system responses, since the 1970s, psychophysiologists also frequently study the impact of physiological states and systems on psychological states and processes. It is this perspective of studying the interface of mind and body that makes psychophysiologists most distinct. Historically, most psychophysiologists tended to examine the physiological responses and organ systems innervated by

10164-637: The inaugural conference of the American Society for Cybernetics was instrumental in the development of second-order cybernetics . Mead was featured on two record albums published by Folkways Records . The first, released in 1959, An Interview With Margaret Mead , explored the topics of morals and anthropology. In 1971, she was included in a compilation of talks by prominent women, But the Women Rose, Vol. 2: Voices of Women in American History . She

10285-430: The individual that these two can produce, an objectification of its true nature corresponding to its aims. — World as Will and Representation , Volume 2, Chapter XLIV Later modern philosophers such as La Rochefoucauld , David Hume and Jean-Jacques Rousseau also focused on morality , but desire was central to French thought and Hume himself tended to adopt a French worldview and temperament. Desire in this milieu meant

10406-558: The integration of Christianity in the decades between Mead's and Freeman's fieldwork periods. Eleanor Leacock traveled to Samoa in 1985 and undertook research among the youth living in urban areas . The research results indicate that the assertions of Derek Freeman were seriously flawed. Leacock pointed out that Mead's famous Samoan fieldwork was undertaken on an outer island that had not been colonialized. Freeman, meanwhile, had undertaken fieldwork in an urban slum plagued by drug abuse, structural unemployment, and gang violence. Mead

10527-535: The intent of raising national morale. In 1942, Mead served as the executive director of the Committee on Food Habits of the National Research Council, which served to gather data on American citizens ability to get food and their overall diet during the war. During World War II, Mead also served on the Institute for Intercultural Studies (IIS), whose prime objective was to research the “national character” of

10648-448: The life of Samoan girls and women on the island of Tau in the Manu'a Archipelago in 1926. The book includes analyses of how children were raised and educated, sex relations, dance, development of personality, conflict, and how women matured into old age. Mead explicitly sought to contrast adolescence in Samoa with that in America, which she characterized as difficult, constrained, and awkward. In

10769-424: The literature of chivalric romance . People who experience little to no romantic attraction are referred to as aromantic . Bode & Kushnick undertook a comprehensive review of romantic love from a biological perspective in 2021. They considered the psychology of romantic love, its mechanisms, development across the lifespan, functions, and evolutionary history. Based on the content of that review, they proposed

10890-754: The most common example. It has long been recognized that emotional episodes are partly constituted by physiological responses. Early work done linking emotions to psychophysiology started with research on mapping consistent autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses to discrete emotional states. For example, anger might be constituted by a certain set of physiological responses, such as increased cardiac output and high diastolic blood pressure, which would allow us to better understand patterns and predict emotional responses. Some studies were able to detect consistent patterns of ANS responses that corresponded to specific emotions under certain contexts, like an early study by Paul Ekman and colleagues in 1983 "Emotion-specific activity in

11011-471: The mutual love of the spouses. The whole nature of strict monogamian marriage under male domination ruled this out." Sigmund Freud stated, "It can easily be shown that the psychical value of erotic needs is reduced as soon as their satisfaction becomes easy. An obstacle is required in order to heighten libido; and where natural resistances to satisfaction have not been sufficient men have at all times erected conventional ones so as to be able to enjoy love. This

11132-587: The observation and recording actual actions, such as running, freezing, eye movement, and facial expression. These are good response measures and easy to record in animals, but they are not as frequently used in human studies. Psychophysiological measures are often used to study emotion and attention responses to stimuli, during exertion, and increasingly, to better understand cognitive processes. Physiological sensors have been used to detect emotions in schools and intelligent tutoring systems . Psychophysiology studies multiple aspects of behavior, and emotions are

11253-408: The other of one's attractions, constitutes the ideals of what we consider to be true romantic love. Mimesis is always the desire to possess, in renouncing it we offer ourselves as a sacrificial gift to the other. Mimetic desire is often challenged by feminists , such as Toril Moi , who argue that it does not account for the woman as inherently desired. Though the centrality of rivalry is not itself

11374-427: The other partner to feel alienated. Secret hostility in one and secret alienation in the other cause the partners to secretly hate each other. This secret hate often leads one or the other or both to seek love objects outside the marriage or relationship. Psychophysiology Psychophysiology (from Greek ψῡχή , psȳkhē , "breath, life, soul"; φύσις , physis , "nature, origin"; and -λογία , -logia )

11495-618: The player, transforms that data into a computerized response, which then shapes the future psychophysiological response from the player. A positive control loop tends towards instability as player-software loop strives towards a higher standard of desirable performance. The physiological computer game may wish to incorporate both positive and negative loops into the adaptive controller. A. Weissman, M. Aranovitch, S. Blazer, and E. Z. Zimmer (2009) Pediatrics 124, e921-e92 L. P.T. Hua, C. A. Brown, S. J.M. Hains, M. Godwin, and J. L. Parlow (2009) Biol Res Nurs 11, 129-143 Margaret Mead This

11616-604: The predominant one for 25 years, romantic love could be better explained by evolutionary co-option of the systems for mother-infant bonding. Fisher likens romantic love to mammalian courtship attraction, but Bode argues courtship attraction is separate. In F. Engels book, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State : "monogamy was the only known form of the family under which modern sex love could develop, it does not follow that this love developed, or even predominantly, within it as

11737-413: The process of romantic love. Anthropologist Helen Fisher , in her book Why We Love , uses brain scans to show that love is the product of a chemical reaction in the brain. Norepinephrine and dopamine , among other brain chemicals, are responsible for excitement and bliss in humans as well as non-human animals. Fisher uses MRI to study the brain activity of a person "in love" and she concludes that love

11858-408: The psychological state of the user (discussed in the affective computing page). The advantages of using psychophysiological indices are that their changes are continuous, measures are covert and implicit, and only available data source when the user interacts with the computer without any explicit communication or input device. These systems rely upon an assumption that the psychophysiological measure

11979-502: The question of nature versus nurture, whether adolescence and its associated developments were a difficult biological transition for all humans or whether they were cultural processes shaped in particular societies. Mead believed childhood, adolescence, gender, and sex relations were largely driven by cultural practices and expressions. Mead's findings suggested that the community ignores both boys and girls until they are about 15 or 16. Before then, children have little social standing within

12100-415: The relationship overrides all other considerations, including material ones." Although the emotions and sensations of romantic love are widely associated with sexual attraction , they could also exist without sexual attraction. In certain cases, romance could even be interpreted as a normal friendship. Historically , the term romance originates with the medieval ideal of chivalry as set out in

12221-419: The return boat she met Reo Fortune , a New Zealander headed to Cambridge , England, to study psychology . They were married in 1928, after Mead's divorce from Cressman. Mead dismissively characterized her union with her first husband as "my student marriage" in her 1972 autobiography Blackberry Winter , a sobriquet with which Cressman took vigorous issue. Mead's third and longest-lasting marriage (1936–1950)

12342-423: The rise of romantic love more or less coincided with the emergence of the novel . It was then that romantic love, associated with freedom and therefore the ideals of romantic love, created the ties between freedom and self-realization . David R. Shumway states that "the discourse of intimacy" emerged in the last third of the 20th century, intended to explain how marriage and other relationships worked, and making

12463-611: The same individuals, and greatly between social groups. Some of these differences can be attributed to variables like induction technique, context of the study, or classification of stimuli, which can alter a perceived scenario or emotional response. However it was also found that features of the participant could also alter ANS responses. Factors such as basal level of arousal at the time of experimentation or between test recovery, learned or conditioned responses to certain stimuli, range and maximal level of effect of ANS action, and individual attentiveness can all alter physiological responses in

12584-484: The social code does not favour romance, romantic elements and imaginative personal attachments are not altogether absent in Trobriand courtship and marriage." The phenomenon which B. Malinowski calls love, actually has very little in common with the European love: "Thus there is nothing roundabout in a Trobriand wooing; nor do they seek full personal relations, with sexual possession only as a consequence. Simply and directly

12705-441: The specific case that emotional closeness is much more important than passion , with intimacy and romance coexisting. One example of the changes experienced in relationships in the early 21st century was explored by Giddens regarding homosexual relationships. According to Giddens, since homosexuals were not able to marry, they were forced to pioneer more open and negotiated relationships. These kinds of relationships then permeated

12826-659: The sum of her observations and interviews during her time in Samoa and that the status of the single interview did not falsify her work. Others such as Orans maintained that even though Freeman's critique was invalid, Mead's study was not sufficiently scientifically rigorous to support the conclusions she drew. In 1999, Freeman published another book, The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead: A Historical Analysis of Her Samoan Research , including previously unavailable material. In his obituary in The New York Times , John Shaw stated that Freeman's thesis, though upsetting many, had by

12947-430: The supposed attraction of women to aggressive men. As a technique of attraction, often combined with irony, it is sometimes advised that one feign toughness and disinterest, but it can be a trivial or crude idea to promulgate to men, and it is not given with much understanding of mimetic desire in mind. Instead, cultivating a spirit of self-sacrifice, coupled with an attitude of appreciation or contemplation, directed towards

13068-461: The third masculine and feminine) and they were split by the gods to thwart the creatures' assault on heaven, recapitulated, according to the comic playwright, in other myths such as the Aloadae . This story is relevant to modern romance partly because of the image of reciprocity it shows between the sexes. In the final speech before Alcibiades arrives, Socrates gives his encomium of love and desire as

13189-435: The time of his death generally gained widespread acceptance. Recent work has nonetheless challenged Freeman's critique. A frequent criticism of Freeman is that he regularly misrepresented Mead's research and views. In a 2009 evaluation of the debate, anthropologist Paul Shankman concluded: There is now a large body of criticism of Freeman's work from a number of perspectives in which Mead, Samoa, and anthropology appear in

13310-521: The union between husband and wife. Courtly love did not necessarily refer to those engaging in sexual acts. It may also have referred to caring and emotional intimacy. The bond between a knight and his Lady , or the woman of typically high stature of whom he served, may in some cases have been one such example. Religious meditations upon the Virgin Mary were partially responsible for the development of chivalry as an ethic and lifestyle. A lady's honor and

13431-675: The village of Peri, the film records how the role of the anthropologist has changed in the forty years since 1928. After her death, Mead's Samoan research was criticized by the anthropologist Derek Freeman , who published a book arguing against many of Mead's conclusions in Coming of Age in Samoa . Freeman argued that Mead had misunderstood Samoan culture when she argued that Samoan culture did not place many restrictions on youths' sexual explorations. Freeman argued instead that Samoan culture prized female chastity and virginity and that Mead had been misled by her female Samoan informants. Freeman found that

13552-465: Was Benjamin Spock , whose subsequent writings on child rearing incorporated some of Mead's own practices and beliefs acquired from her ethnological field observations which she shared with him; in particular, breastfeeding on the baby's demand, rather than by a schedule. Mead also had an exceptionally close relationship with Ruth Benedict , one of her instructors. In her memoir about her parents, With

13673-680: Was a discipline off the mainstream of psychological and medical science prior to roughly the 1940s, more recently, psychophysiology has found itself positioned at the intersection of psychological and medical science, and its popularity and importance have expanded commensurately with the realization of the inter-relatedness of mind and body. Psychophysiology measures exist in multiple domains; reports, electrophysiological studies, studies in neurochemistry , neuroimaging and behavioral methods. Evaluative reports involve participant introspection and self-ratings of internal psychological states or physiological sensations, such as self-report of arousal levels on

13794-450: Was actually affecting intelligence scores. Next, Mead argues that it is difficult to measure the effect that social status has on the results of a person's intelligence test. She meant that environment (family structure, socioeconomic status, and exposure to language, etc.) has too much influence on an individual to attribute inferior scores solely to a physical characteristic such as race. Then, Mead adds that language barriers sometimes create

13915-605: Was an adjunct professor from 1954 to 1978 and a professor of anthropology and chair of the Division of Social Sciences at Fordham University 's Lincoln Center campus from 1968 to 1970, founding their anthropology department. In 1970, she joined the faculty of the University of Rhode Island as a Distinguished Professor of Sociology and Anthropology. Following Ruth Benedict's example, Mead focused her research on problems of child rearing, personality, and culture. She served as president of

14036-561: Was careful to shield the identity of all her subjects for confidentiality, but Freeman found and interviewed one of her original participants, and Freeman reported that she admitted to having willfully misled Mead. She said that she and her friends were having fun with Mead and telling her stories. In 1996, the author Martin Orans examined Mead's notes preserved at the Library of Congress and credits her for leaving all of her recorded data available to

14157-731: Was ideologically motivated. Mead's Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies became influential within the feminist movement since it claimed that females are dominant in the Tchambuli (now spelled Chambri ) Lake region of the Sepik basin of Papua New Guinea (in the western Pacific) without causing any special problems. The lack of male dominance may have been the result of the Australian administration's outlawing of warfare. According to contemporary research, males are dominant throughout Melanesia . Others have argued that there

14278-822: Was originally an adverb of Latin origin, "romanicus", meaning "of the Roman style". European medieval vernacular tales, epics , and ballads generally dealt with chivalric adventure , not bringing in the concept of love until late into the seventeenth century. The word romance developed other meanings, such as the early nineteenth century Spanish and Italian definitions of "adventurous" and "passionate", which could intimate both "love affair" and "idealistic quality". Anthropologists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss show that there were complex forms of courtship in ancient as well as contemporary primitive societies. There may not be evidence, however, that members of such societies formed loving relationships distinct from their established customs in

14399-406: Was required. Mead described Samoan youth as often having free, experimental, and open sexual relationships, including homosexual relationships, which was at odds with mainstream American norms around sexuality. In 1970, National Educational Television produced a documentary in commemoration of the 40th anniversary Mead's first expedition to New Guinea. Through the eyes of Mead on her final visit to

14520-484: Was tantamount to saying, "I want to copulate with you." The components of affection and companionship, which may characterize the European use of the term, puzzled the Mangaians when we discussed the term." "The principal findings that one can draw from an analysis of emotional components of sexual relationship feelings on Mangaia are: Nathaniel Branden claims that by virtue of "the tribal mentality," "in primitive cultures

14641-483: Was to the British anthropologist Gregory Bateson with whom she had a daughter, Mary Catherine Bateson , who would also become an anthropologist. She readily acknowledged that Bateson was the husband she loved the most. She was devastated when he left her and remained his loving friend ever afterward. She kept his photograph by her bedside wherever she traveled, including beside her hospital deathbed. Mead's pediatrician

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