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70-687: Robin Rigg Wind Farm , Scotland's first offshore wind farm , was constructed by E.ON at Robin Rigg in the Solway Firth , a sandbank midway between the Galloway and Cumbrian coasts. The wind farm first generated power for test purposes on 9 September 2009 and it was completed on 20 April 2010. 60 Vestas V90-3MW wind turbines were installed, with an offshore electrical substation . Prysmian provided two 132 kV export cables each 12.5 km long to connect

140-469: A cost of between $ 65-$ 74 per MWh. Offshore wind resources are by their nature both huge in scale and highly dispersed, considering the ratio of the planet's surface area that is covered by oceans and seas compared to land mass. Wind speeds offshore are known to be considerably higher than for the equivalent location onshore due to the absence of land mass obstacles and the lower surface roughness of water compared to land features such as forests and savannah,

210-419: A driver's license can perform on land in a fraction of the time at a fraction of the cost. Cost for installed offshore turbines fell 30% to $ 78/MWh in 2019, a more rapid drop than other types of renewable energy. It has been suggested that innovation at scale could deliver 25% cost reduction in offshore wind by 2020. Offshore wind power market plays an important role in achieving the renewable target in most of

280-492: A fact that is illustrated by global wind speed maps that cover both onshore and offshore areas using the same input data and methodology. For the North Sea , wind turbine energy is around 30  kWh /m of sea area, per year, delivered to grid. The energy per sea area is roughly independent of turbine size. The technical exploitable resource potential for offshore wind is a factor of the average wind speed and water depth, as it

350-449: A hardhat, gloves and safety glasses, an offshore turbine technician may be required to wear a life vest, waterproof or water-resistant clothing and perhaps even a survival suit if working, sea and atmospheric conditions make rapid rescue in case of a fall into the water unlikely or impossible. Typically at least two technicians skilled and trained in operating and handling large power boats at sea are required for tasks that one technician with

420-547: A higher capacity factor than many other power sources, and geothermal resources are generally available all the time. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), from 2013 to 2017 the capacity factors of utility-scale generators were as follows: However, these values often vary significantly by month. The following figures were collected by the Department of Energy and Climate Change on

490-437: A large fraction of offshore wind systems, and must take into account every single one of these factors. Load transfer in the grout between tower and foundation may stress the grout, and elastomeric bearings are used in several British sea turbines. Corrosion is also a serious problem and requires detailed design considerations. The prospect of remote monitoring of corrosion looks very promising, using expertise utilised by

560-429: A large-scale photovoltaic system (PV system). An inherent limit to its capacity factor comes from its requirement of daylight , preferably with a sun unobstructed by clouds, smoke or smog , shade from trees and building structures. Since the amount of sunlight varies both with the time of the day and the seasons of the year, the capacity factor is typically computed on an annual basis. The amount of available sunlight

630-404: A nameplate capacity of 2080 MW and an annual generation averaging 4.2 TW·h. (The annual generation has varied between a high of 10.348 TW·h in 1984, and a low of 2.648 TW·h in 1956. ). Taking the average figure for annual generation gives a capacity factor of: At the low range of capacity factors is the photovoltaic power station , which supplies power to the electricity grid from

700-426: A nameplate capacity of 25.7 MW and an actual average annual production of 26.98 GWh/year it has a capacity factor of 12.0%. There are several reasons why a plant would have a capacity factor lower than 100%. These include technical constraints, such as availability of the plant, economic reasons, and availability of the energy resource. A plant can be out of service or operating at reduced output for part of

770-404: A nameplate capacity of 3,942 MW. In 2010 its annual generation was 31,200,000 MWh, leading to a capacity factor of: Each of Palo Verde’s three reactors is refueled every 18 months, with one refueling every spring and fall. In 2014, a refueling was completed in a record 28 days, compared to the 35 days of downtime that the 2010 capacity factor corresponds to. In 2019, Prairie Island 1

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840-437: A ninefold increase in global offshore wind energy deployment, supported by advancements in infrastructure such as supply chains, ports, and transmission systems. Operational expenditures for wind farms are split between Maintenance (38%), Port Activities (31%), Operation (15%), License Fees (12%), and Miscellaneous Costs (4%). Operation and maintenance costs typically represent 53% of operational expenditures, and 25% - 30% of

910-429: A plant is only needed during the day, for example, even if it operates at full power output from 8 am to 8 pm every day (12 hours) all year long, it would only have a 50% capacity factor. Due to low capacity factors, electricity from peaking power plants is relatively expensive because the limited generation has to cover the plant fixed costs. A third reason is that a plant may not have the fuel available to operate all of

980-433: A stopped condition to full power in just a few minutes. Wind farms are variable, due to the natural variability of the wind. For a wind farm, the capacity factor is determined by the availability of wind, the swept area of the turbine and the size of the generator . Transmission line capacity and electricity demand also affect the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors of current wind farms are between 25 and 45%. In

1050-790: A total capacity of 11,027 MW. The history of the development of wind farms in the North Sea, as regards the United Kingdom, indicates three phases: coastal, off-coastal and deep offshore in the period 2004 through to 2021. Through the development of offshore wind power the Baltic Sea is expected to become a major source of energy for countries in the region. According to the Marienborg Declaration, signed in 2022, all EU Baltic Sea states have announced their intentions to have 19.6 gigawatts of offshore wind in operation by 2030. Outside of Europe,

1120-705: Is generally the availability of the energy source. The plant may be capable of producing electricity, but its "fuel" ( wind , sunlight or water ) may not be available. A hydroelectric plant's production may also be affected by requirements to keep the water level from getting too high or low and to provide water for fish downstream. However, solar, wind and hydroelectric plants do have high availability factors , so when they have fuel available, they are almost always able to produce electricity. When hydroelectric plants have water available, they are also useful for load following, because of their high dispatchability . A typical hydroelectric plant's operators can bring it from

1190-416: Is mostly determined by the latitude of the installation and the local cloud cover. The actual production is also influenced by local factors such as dust and ambient temperature, which ideally should be low. As for any power station, the maximum possible power production is the nameplate capacity times the number of hours in a year, while the actual production is the amount of electricity delivered annually to

1260-546: Is only possible to generate electricity from offshore wind resources where turbines can be anchored. Currently, fixed foundation offshore wind turbines can be installed up to around 50 metres (160 ft) of sea depth. Beyond that, floating foundation turbines would be required, potentially allowing installation at depths of up to one kilometre (3,300 ft) based on currently proposed technologies. Based on an analysis of viable water depths and wind speeds over seven metres per second (23 ft/s), it has been estimated that there

1330-507: Is over 17 terawatt (TW) of offshore wind technical potential in just the 50 countries studied, not including most OECD countries such as Australia, Japan, the United States or Western Europe. Well-endowed countries such as Argentina and China have almost 2 TW and 3 TW of potential respectively, illustrating the vast potential of offshore wind in such locations. It is necessary to obtain several types of information in order to plan

1400-465: Is unrelated to Betz's coefficient of 16/27 ≈ {\displaystyle \approx } 59.3%, which limits production vs. energy available in the wind. As of 2017 Three Gorges Dam in China is, with its nameplate capacity of 22,500 MW, the largest power generating station in the world by installed capacity. In 2015 it generated 87 TWh, for a capacity factor of: Hoover Dam has

1470-504: Is usually found offshore and only at very few specific points onshore. Europe is the world leader in offshore wind power, with the first offshore wind farm ( Vindeby ) being installed in Denmark in 1991. In 2009, the average nameplate capacity of an offshore wind turbine in Europe was about 3 MW, and the capacity of future turbines was expected to increase to 5 MW. A 2013 review of

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1540-524: The Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future . Because of the many factors involved, one of the biggest difficulties with offshore wind farms is the ability to predict loads. Analysis must account for the dynamic coupling between translational (surge, sway, and heave) and rotational (roll, pitch, and yaw ) platform motions and turbine motions, as well as the dynamic characterization of mooring lines for floating systems. Foundations and substructures make up

1610-477: The European Union (EU), different national standards are to be streamlined into more cohesive guidelines to lower costs. The standards require that a loads analysis is based on site-specific external conditions such as wind, wave and currents. The planning and permitting phase can cost more than $ 10 million, take 5–7 years and have an uncertain outcome. The industry is putting pressure on governments to improve

1680-508: The Inflation Reduction Act . The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) predicted in 2016 that offshore wind power will grow to 8% of ocean economy by 2030, and that its industry will employ 435,000 people, adding $ 230 billion of value. The European Commission expects that offshore wind energy will be of increasing importance in the future, as offshore wind is part of its Green Deal . The development of

1750-457: The south-western United States , although in some locations solar PV does not reduce the need for generation of network upgrades given that air conditioner peak demand often occurs in the late afternoon or early evening when solar output is reduced. SolarPACES states that by using thermal energy storage systems the operating periods of solar thermal power (CSP) stations can be extended to become dispatchable (load following). Geothermal has

1820-434: The 2010s. As of 2020, offshore wind power had become a significant part of northern Europe power generation, though it remained less than 1 percent of overall world electricity generation. A big advantage of offshore wind power compared to onshore wind power is the higher capacity factor meaning that an installation of given nameplate capacity will produce more electricity at a site with more consistent and stronger wind which

1890-529: The Chinese government had set ambitious targets of 5 GW of installed offshore wind capacity by 2015 and 30 GW by 2020 that would eclipse capacity in other countries. However, in May 2014 the capacity of offshore wind power in China was only 565 MW. Offshore capacity in China increased by 832 MW in 2016, of which 636 MW were made in China. The offshore wind construction market remains quite concentrated. By

1960-462: The Netherlands, Portugal, and the United Kingdom, totaling more over €10 billion in loans. The EIB funded €3.7 billion in maritime renewable energy between 2019 and 2023 and has future plans for financing of wind farms. The advantage of locating wind turbines offshore is that the wind is much stronger off the coasts, and unlike wind over land, offshore breezes can be strong in the afternoon, matching

2030-533: The US could slow progress, with only a third of the anticipated capacity expected to be installed between 2023 and 2027. In 2010, the US Energy Information Agency said "offshore wind power is the most expensive energy generating technology being considered for large scale deployment". The 2010 state of offshore wind power presented economic challenges significantly greater than onshore systems, with prices in

2100-787: The United Kingdom during the five year period from 2011 to 2019 the annual capacity factor for wind was over 30%. Solar energy is variable because of the daily rotation of the earth, seasonal changes, and because of cloud cover. For example, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District observed a 15% capacity factor in 2005. However, according to the SolarPACES programme of the International Energy Agency (IEA), solar power plants designed for solar-only generation are well matched to summer noon peak loads in areas with significant cooling demands, such as Spain or

2170-433: The capacity factor vary greatly depending on a range of factors. The capacity factor can never exceed the availability factor , or uptime during the period. Uptime can be reduced due to, for example, reliability issues and maintenance, scheduled or unscheduled. Other factors include the design of the installation, its location, the type of electricity production and with it either the fuel being used or, for renewable energy,

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2240-433: The commissioning of an offshore wind farm. These include: Existing hardware for measurements includes Light Detection and Ranging ( LIDAR ), Sonic Detection and Ranging ( SODAR ), radar , autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), and remote satellite sensing, although these technologies should be assessed and refined, according to a report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by

2310-581: The countries around the world. Auctions in 2016 for future projects have reached costs of €54.5 per megawatt hour (MWh) at the 700 MW Borssele 3&4 due to government tender and size, and €49.90 per MWh (without transmission) at the 600 MW Kriegers Flak . In September 2017 contracts were awarded in the United Kingdom for a strike price of £57.50 per MWh making the price cheaper than nuclear and competitive with gas. In September 2018 contracts were awarded for Vineyard Wind, Massachusetts, USA at

2380-402: The current power need, conserving its stored water for later usage. Other reasons that a power plant may not have a capacity factor of 100% include restrictions or limitations on air permits and limitations on transmission that force the plant to curtail output. For renewable energy sources such as solar power , wind power and hydroelectricity , the main reason for reduced capacity factor

2450-433: The electricity is not needed or because the price of electricity is too low to make production economical. This accounts for most of the unused capacity of peaking power plants and load following power plants . Peaking plants may operate for only a few hours per year or up to several hours per day. Many other power plants operate only at certain times of the day or year because of variation in loads and electricity prices. If

2520-670: The end of 2011, there were 53 European offshore wind farms in waters off Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, with an operating capacity of 3,813 MW, while 5,603 MW was under construction. Offshore wind farms worth €8.5 billion ($ 11.4 billion) were under construction in European waters in 2011. In 2012, Bloomberg estimated that energy from offshore wind turbines cost €161 ( US$ 208 ) per MWh. Costs of offshore wind power are decreasing much faster than expected. By 2016, four contracts ( Borssele and Kriegers ) were already below

2590-469: The end of 2015, Siemens Wind Power had installed 63% of the world's 11 GW offshore wind power capacity; Vestas had 19%, Senvion came third with 8% and Adwen 6%. About 12 GW of offshore wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe, with 3,755 MW of that coming online during 2015. As of 2020 90% of the offshore global market was represented by European companies. By 2017,

2660-694: The engineering aspects of turbines like the sizes used onshore, including the electrical connections and converters, considered that the industry had in general been overoptimistic about the benefits-to-costs ratio and concluded that the "offshore wind market doesn’t look as if it is going to be big". In 2013, offshore wind power contributed to 1,567 MW of the total 11,159 MW of wind power capacity constructed that year. By January 2014, 69 offshore wind farms had been constructed in Europe with an average annual rated capacity of 482 MW. The total installed capacity of offshore wind farms in European waters reached 6,562 MW. The United Kingdom had by far

2730-452: The first year of commercial operation the wind farm was available to operate for over 98% of the time. Its levelised cost has been estimated at £135/MWh. In March 2011 Robin Rigg became the first offshore wind farm to enter the OFTO regime with the two offshore and onshore export cables and the onshore 132kV substation being bought by Transmission Capital and Amber Infrastructure. The wind farm

2800-598: The full potential of Europe's offshore wind energy is one of the key actions in the Clean Energy section of the Green Deal. By 2050, the expectation is that the installed offshore wind power capacity will reach 1550 GW on a worldwide scale. Compared to the capacity of 2017 that corresponds to an 80-fold increase. One of the advancements that characterises the current development within the offshore industry are technologies that allow for offshore wind projects further off

2870-510: The grid. For example, Agua Caliente Solar Project , located in Arizona near the 33rd parallel and awarded for its excellence in renewable energy has a nameplate capacity of 290 MW and an actual average annual production of 740 GWh/year. Its capacity factor is thus: A significantly lower capacity factor is achieved by Lauingen Energy Park located in Bavaria , near the 49th parallel. With

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2940-403: The installed offshore wind power capacity worldwide was 20 GW. In 2018, offshore wind provided just 0.3% of the global electricity supply. Nevertheless, just in 2018 an additional amount of 4.3 GW of offshore wind capacity was employed on a worldwide scale. In Denmark, 50% of the electricity was supplied by wind energy in 2018 out of which 15% was offshore. The average size of turbines installed

3010-422: The landscape. Unlike the typical use of the term "offshore" in the marine industry, offshore wind power includes inshore water areas such as lakes, fjords and sheltered coastal areas as well as deeper-water areas. Most offshore wind farms employ fixed-foundation wind turbines in relatively shallow water. Floating wind turbines for deeper waters are in an earlier phase of development and deployment. As of 2022,

3080-470: The largest capacity with 3,681 MW. Denmark was second with 1,271 MW installed and Belgium was third with 571 MW. Germany came fourth with 520 MW, followed by the Netherlands (247 MW), Sweden (212 MW), Finland (26 MW), Ireland (25 MW), Spain (5 MW), Norway (2 MW) and Portugal (2 MW). At the end of 2015, 3,230 turbines at 84 offshore wind farms across 11 European countries had been installed and grid-connected, making

3150-427: The lifetime of the power source, both while operational and after decommissioning. A capacity factor can also be expressed and converted to full load hours . Nuclear power plants are at the high end of the range of capacity factors, ideally reduced only by the availability factor , i.e. maintenance and refueling. The largest nuclear plant in the US, Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station has between its three reactors

3220-436: The local weather conditions. Additionally, the capacity factor can be subject to regulatory constraints and market forces , potentially affecting both its fuel purchase and its electricity sale. The capacity factor is often computed over a timescale of a year, averaging out most temporal fluctuations. However, it can also be computed for a month to gain insight into seasonal fluctuations. Alternatively, it can be computed over

3290-435: The lowest of the predicted 2050 prices. Offshore wind projects in the United States cost US$ 4,000 per kilowatt to build in 2023, compared to US\$ 1,363 per kilowatt for onshore wind farms. The cost of offshore wind has increased by 36% since 2019, while the cost of onshore wind has increased by only 5% over the same period. Some major U.S. projects have been stymied due to inflation even after subsidies became available from

3360-482: The offshore oil/gas industry and other large industrial plants. Moreover, as power generation efficiency of wind farms downwind of offshore wind farms was found to decrease, strategic decision-making may need to consider – cross-national – limits and potentials for optimization. Some of the guidelines for designing offshore wind farms are set out in IEC 61400 -3, but in the US several other standards are necessary. In

3430-521: The onshore 1 GW Fosen Vind which as of 2017 is under construction in Norway has a projected capacity factor of 39%. Feasibility calculations may be affected by seasonality. For example in Finland, capacity factor during the cold winter months is more than double compared to July. While the annual average in Finland is 29.5%, the high demand for heating energy correlates with the higher capacity factor during

3500-617: The processes. In Denmark , many of these phases have been deliberately streamlined by authorities in order to minimize hurdles, and this policy has been extended for coastal wind farms with a concept called ’one-stop-shop’. The United States introduced a similar model called "Smart from the Start" in 2012. In the EU, the revised Renewable Energy Directive of 2018 has simplified the permitting process to help initiate wind projects. Capacity factor The actual energy output during that period and

3570-435: The range of 2.5-3.0 million Euro/MW. That year, Siemens and Vestas were turbine suppliers for 90% of offshore wind power, while Ørsted A/S (then named DONG Energy), Vattenfall and E.on were the leading offshore operators. In 2011, Ørsted estimated that while offshore wind turbines were not yet competitive with fossil fuels, they would be in 15 years. Until then, state funding and pension funds would be needed. At

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3640-554: The same restriction in size of onshore wind turbines, such as availability of land or transportation requirements. In 2022, the cost of electricity from new offshore wind projects increased from USD 0.079/kWh to USD 0.081/kWh compared to the previous year, as reported by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). This rise contrasts with the declining trend observed in other renewable energy sources such as onshore wind and solar photovoltaics (PV), despite

3710-669: The shore where wind availability is higher. In particular, the adoption of floating foundation technologies has proved to be a promising technology for unlocking the wind potential on deeper waters. A main investor for Europe has been the European Investment Bank. The EIB has been investing in offshore renewable energy, co-financing around 40% of all capacity in Europe. Since 2003, the EIB has sponsored 34 offshore wind projects in Europe, including facilities in Belgium, Denmark, Germany, France,

3780-480: The still limited number of installations. The offshore wind industry is not yet fully industrialized, as supply bottlenecks still exist as of 2017. Offshore wind farms tend to have larger turbines when compared to onshore installations, and the trend is towards a continued increase in size. Economics of offshore wind farms tend to favor larger turbines, as installation and grid connection costs decrease per unit energy produced. Moreover, offshore wind farms do not have

3850-767: The technical standards company DNV . The J101 standard contained a calculation error; although MT Hojgaard aimed to comply with the standard as-published, their design was not sufficiently robust to meet the 20-year lifetime requirement and so the Supreme Court found they had breached the contract. Offshore wind farm Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the generation of electricity through wind farms in bodies of water, usually at sea. There are higher wind speeds offshore than on land, so offshore farms generate more electricity per amount of capacity installed. Offshore wind farms are also less controversial than those on land, as they have less impact on people and

3920-591: The time due to equipment failures or routine maintenance. This accounts for most of the unused capacity of base load power plants . Base load plants usually have low costs per unit of electricity because they are designed for maximum efficiency and are operated continuously at high output. Geothermal power plants , nuclear power plants , coal-fired plants and bioenergy plants that burn solid material are almost always operated as base load plants, as they can be difficult to adjust to suit demand. A plant can also have its output curtailed or intentionally left idle because

3990-430: The time when people are using the most electricity. Offshore turbines can also be located close to the load centers along the coasts, such as large cities, eliminating the need for new long-distance transmission lines. However, there are several disadvantages of offshore installations, related to more expensive installation, difficulty of access, and harsher conditions for the units. Locating wind turbines offshore exposes

4060-426: The time. This can apply to fossil generating stations with restricted fuels supplies, but most notably applies to intermittent renewable resources. Solar PV and wind turbines have a capacity factor limited by the availability of their "fuel", sunshine and wind respectively. A hydroelectricity plant may have a capacity factor lower than 100% due to restriction or scarcity of water, or its output may be regulated to match

4130-432: The total lifecycle costs for offshore wind farms. O&Ms are considered one of the major barriers for further development of this resource. Maintenance of offshore wind farms is much more expensive than for onshore installations. For example, a single technician in a pickup truck can quickly, easily and safely access turbines on land in almost any weather conditions, exit his or her vehicle and simply walk over to and into

4200-771: The total worldwide offshore wind power nameplate capacity was 64.3 gigawatt (GW). China (49%), the United Kingdom (22%), and Germany (13%) account for more than 75% of the global installed capacity. The 1.4 GW Hornsea Project Two in the United Kingdom was the world's largest offshore wind farm. Other projects in the planning stage include Dogger Bank in the United Kingdom at 4.8 GW, and Greater Changhua in Taiwan at 2.4 GW. The cost of offshore has historically been higher than that of onshore, but costs decreased to $ 78/MWh in 2019. Offshore wind power in Europe became price-competitive with conventional power sources in 2017. Offshore wind generation grew at over 30 percent per year in

4270-523: The turbine represents just one third to one half of total costs in offshore projects today, the rest comes from infrastructure, maintenance, and oversight. Costs for foundations, installation, electrical connections and operation and maintenance (O&M) are a large share of the total for offshore installations compared to onshore wind farms. The cost of installation and electrical connection also increases rapidly with distance from shore and water depth. Other limitations of offshore wind power are related to

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4340-464: The turbine tower to gain access to the entire unit within minutes of arriving onsite. Similar access to offshore turbines involves driving to a dock or pier, loading necessary tools and supplies into boat, a voyage to the wind turbine(s), securing the boat to the turbine structure, transferring tools and supplies to and from boat to turbine and turbine to boat and performing the rest of the steps in reverse order. In addition to standard safety gear such as

4410-544: The units to high humidity, salt water and salt water spray which negatively affect service life, cause corrosion and oxidation, increase maintenance and repair costs and in general make every aspect of installation and operation much more difficult, time-consuming, more dangerous and far more expensive than sites on land. The humidity and temperature is controlled by air conditioning the sealed nacelle. Sustained high-speed operation and generation also increases wear, maintenance and repair requirements proportionally. The cost of

4480-522: The upward trend in materials and equipment costs. Researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) forecast a reduction in offshore wind energy costs by 2035. They estimate that the levelized cost for fixed-bottom offshore wind will decrease from $ 75 per megawatt-hour (MWh) in 2021 to $ 53/MWh in 2035, and for floating offshore wind , from $ 207/MWh to $ 64/MWh. These cost estimates are based on projections that anticipate

4550-594: The wind farm to the on-shore substation. Two units were subsequently decommissioned in 2015 due to failures during installation. The 174 MW development provides enough electricity for around 117,000 households. The windfarm employs around 40 people, most of whom are local to the area. It is operated from the Port of Workington . Local suppliers are used whenever possible, providing services including vessel management, fabrication, environmental monitoring , catering, industrial cleaning, inspection services and printing. In

4620-470: The winter. Certain onshore wind farms can reach capacity factors of over 60%, for example the 44 MW Eolo plant in Nicaragua had a net generation of 232.132 GWh in 2015, equivalent to a capacity factor of 60.2%, while United States annual capacity factors from 2013 through 2016 range from 32.2% to 34.7%. Since the capacity factor of a wind turbine measures actual production relative to possible production, it

4690-411: Was 6.8 MW in 2018, 7.2 MW in 2019 and 8.2 MW in 2020. In 2022, the offshore wind industry marked its second-largest yearly growth, adding 8.8 GW and increasing global capacity to 64.3 GW—a 16% rise from the previous year. The Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) anticipates a significant expansion, projecting an additional 380 GW by 2032 to reach a total of 447 GW. However, market challenges in Europe and

4760-455: Was contained within a Technical Requirements document which formed part of the contract, but on appeal Jackson LJ considered this requirement "too slender a thread" upon which to hang MT Hojgaard's liability in the light of other, inconsistent, parts of the specification, and because E.ON had specified a requirement that they comply with offshore standard J101, an international standard for the design of offshore wind turbine structures produced by

4830-413: Was the US unit with the highest factor and actually reached 104.4%. The Danish offshore wind farm Horns Rev 2 has a nameplate capacity of 209.3 MW. As of January 2017 it has produced 6416 GWh since its commissioning 7 years ago, i.e. an average annual production of 875 GWh/year and a capacity factor of: Sites with lower capacity factors may be deemed feasible for wind farms, for example

4900-464: Was the subject of a legal case decided by the UK Supreme Court in 2017, which arose because certain of the foundation structures failed shortly after completion of the project. These had been designed and installed by Danish company MT Højgaard A/S under a contract awarded by E.ON . The case was legally significant because a requirement that the structures "be designed with a lifetime of 20 years"

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