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61-400: Rho is classed as a liquid consonant (together with Lambda and sometimes the nasals Mu and Nu ), which has important implications for morphology . In both Ancient and Modern Greek , it represents an alveolar trill IPA: [r] , alveolar tap IPA: [ɾ] , or alveolar approximant IPA: [ɹ] . In polytonic orthography , a rho at the beginning of

122-497: A caesura . Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the elegiac distich or elegiac couplet , a form of verse that was used for the composition of elegies and other tragic and solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from Ovid 's Tristia : The Greeks and Romans also used

183-543: A liquid consonant or simply liquid is any of a class of consonants that consists of rhotics and voiced lateral approximants , which are also sometimes described as "R-like sounds" and "L-like sounds". The word liquid seems to be a calque of the Ancient Greek word ὑγρός ( hygrós , transl.  moist ), initially used by grammarian Dionysius Thrax to describe Greek sonorants . Liquid consonants are more prone to be part of consonant clusters and of

244-463: A trochee ( daa-duh ). The initial syllable of either foot is called the ictus , the basic "beat" of the verse. There is usually a caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening line of the Aeneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter: In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count as long because

305-443: A child's phonological development , and they are more likely to be deleted in consonant clusters before the age of three. Liquids have also been described as consonants involving "complex lingual geometries." To better determine the full range of articulatory and acoustic characteristics of liquids, the use of ultrasound paired with audio recordings is increasing. This is due to this consonant group being difficult to analyse on

366-529: A dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic stanza , three hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl and a trochee. This is the form of Catullus 51 (itself an homage to Sappho 31 ): The Sapphic stanza was imitated in English by Algernon Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics : The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical Greek and Latin,

427-547: A frequent example is the behaviour of /r/ and /l/: In English, comfortable is frequently pronounced /ˈkʌmf.tɚ.bəl/ in rhotic varieties, although its stem, comfort is pronounced /ˈkʌm.fɚt/, with the rhotic /ɹ/ in its original position. Liquid consonant can also undergo assimilation (cf. Sicilian pa rr ari "to speak" and Italian pa rl are ). This phenomenon is one of the reasons long liquids are common in Finnish despite being not so common worldwide. See tu ll ut from

488-400: A line with six iambic feet. Sometimes a natural pause occurs in the middle of a line rather than at a line-break. This is a caesura (cut). A good example is from The Winter's Tale by William Shakespeare ; the caesurae are indicated by '/': In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot caused by the end of a word. Each line of traditional Germanic alliterative verse

549-572: A mistranslation), whence it has been retained in the Western European phonetic tradition. In the sonority hierarchy , liquids are considered the most sonorous sounds after vowels and glides, with laterals considered to be less sonorous than rhotics. This explains why they are more likely to be part of consonant clusters than other consonants (excluding glides), and to follow obstruents in initial consonant clusters and precede them in final consonant clusters. Liquids also hold this position in

610-461: A non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic couplets are Dryden and Pope . Another important metre in English is the common metre , also called the "ballad metre", which is a four-line stanza, with two pairs of a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of iambic trimeter ; the rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This

671-471: A number of lyric metres, which were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In Aeolic verse , one important line was called the hendecasyllabic , a line of eleven syllables. This metre was used most often in the Sapphic stanza , named after the Greek poet Sappho , who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by

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732-399: A poem's metre is to use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root F-ʿ-L (فعل). Thus, the following hemistich قفا نبك من ذكرى حبيبٍ ومنزلِ Would be traditionally scanned as: فعولن مفاعيلن فعولن مفاعلن That is, Romanized and with traditional Western scansion: Al-Kʰalīl b. ˀAḫmad al-Farāhīdī's contribution to the study of Arabic prosody is undeniably significant: he was

793-451: A process known as vocalisation. See, for example, Sicilian ca u du from Latin ca l idus . According to a survey by linguist Ian Maddieson , most languages have one to three liquids (with systems of two liquids being the most common) and they are usually dental or alveolar . Liquid consonants are also rarely geminated cross-linguistically. Many languages, such as Japanese , Korean , or Polynesian languages (see below), have

854-451: A purely auditory base. Liquids seem to be more or less subjected to certain sound changes or phonological processes than other consonants. On an auditory level, liquid consonants resemble each other, which is likely the reason they undergo or trigger assimilation , dissimilation and metathesis . Cross-linguistically, liquids tend to be more prone to metathesis than other consonants, especially long-distance metathesis. In Spanish,

915-461: A single liquid phoneme that has both lateral and rhotic allophones . English has two liquid phonemes, one lateral, / l / and one rhotic, / ɹ / , exemplified in the words l ed and r ed . Many other European languages have one lateral and one rhotic phoneme. Some, such as Greek , Italian and Serbo-Croatian , have more than two liquid phonemes. All three languages have the set /l/, /ʎ/, /r/ , with two laterals and one rhotic. Similarly,

976-406: A syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, syllables of the type -āk- or -akr- are not found in classical Arabic. Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet ( tafāʿīl or ʾaǧzāʾ ) and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a metre ( baḥr ). The traditional Arabic practice for writing out

1037-468: A word is written with a rough breathing , equivalent to h ( ῥ rh ), and a double rho within a word is written with a smooth breathing over the first rho and a rough breathing over the second ( ῤῥ rrh ). That apparently reflected an aspirated or voiceless pronunciation in Ancient Greek , which led to the various Greek-derived English words starting with rh or containing rrh . The name of

1098-414: Is tetrameter ; five is pentameter ; six is hexameter , seven is heptameter and eight is octameter . For example, if the feet are iambs, and if there are five feet to a line, then it is called an iambic pentameter . If the feet are primarily dactyls and there are six to a line, then it is a dactylic hexameter . In classical Greek and Latin, however, the name " iambic trimeter " refers to

1159-496: Is ἀν δ ρός an d rós , with the insertion of a [d] sound between a nasal consonant and the liquid [r]. Another example is the Irish word bolg "belly", usually pronounced with an epenthetic schwa [ə] after the liquid [lˠ]: [ˈbˠɔlˠəg] . Liquids can often be the result of lenition , the change of a consonant towards characteristics that are typical of vowels, making it "weaker". They are also likely to become vowels or glides ,

1220-495: Is based on the weight of syllables classified as either "long" or "short". The basic principles of Arabic poetic metre Arūḍ or Arud ( Arabic : العروض al-ʿarūḍ ) Science of Poetry ( Arabic : علم الشعر ʿilm aš-šiʿr ), were put forward by Al-Farahidi (718 - 786 CE) who did so after noticing that poems consisted of repeated syllables in each verse. In his first book, Al-Ard ( Arabic : العرض al-ʿarḍ ), he described 15 types of verse. Al-Akhfash described one extra,

1281-451: Is classified according to the same system as Classical metre with an important difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the metre can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively. The most common characteristic feet of English verse are

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1342-469: Is divided into two half-lines by a caesura. This can be seen in Piers Plowman : By contrast with caesura, enjambment is incomplete syntax at the end of a line; the meaning runs over from one poetic line to the next, without terminal punctuation. Also from Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale : Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation

1403-435: Is equivalent to two morae. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a diphthong , or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Various rules of elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as correption ) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite. The most important Classical metre

1464-425: Is expected based on the first two formants. In articulatory phonetics , liquids are described as controlled gestures , which are slower and require more precise tongue movement during the "homing phase", when the tongue adjusts towards the place of articulation of the consonant. Due to the fact that babies prefer ballistic gestures , which rely on the propelling motion of the jaw, liquids usually occur later in

1525-442: Is in turned loaned into English as colonel , with an orthography inspired by Italian but with the /ˈkɚnəl/ or /ˈkɜːnel/ pronunciation with the rhotic r , which is absent in writing. Epenthesis , or the addition of sounds, is common in environments where liquids are present, especially consonant clusters . The epenthetic sound can be a vowel or a consonant. For example, the genitive of the Ancient Greek noun ἀνήρ anḗr "man"

1586-407: Is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical metre. The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a mora , which is defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable

1647-545: Is often considered alien to English). The use of foreign metres in English is all but exceptional. The most frequently encountered metre of English verse is the iambic pentameter , in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations are practically inexhaustible. John Milton 's Paradise Lost , most sonnets , and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as blank verse . Blank verse in

1708-399: Is the dactylic hexameter , the metre of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The word dactyl comes from the Greek word daktylos meaning finger , since there is one long part followed by two short stretches. The first four feet are dactyls ( daa-duh-duh ), but can be spondees ( daa-daa ). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is either a spondee or

1769-420: Is the dactylic pentameter . This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to

1830-449: Is the inversion of a foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a trochee ("DUM-da"). A second variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot. A third variation is catalexis , where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof – an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' "La Belle Dame sans Merci": Most English metre

1891-625: Is the metre of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In hymnody it is called the "common metre", as it is the most common of the named hymn metres used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as Amazing Grace : Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad metre: Versification in Classical Sanskrit poetry is of three kinds. Standard traditional works on metre are Pingala's Chandaḥśāstra and Kedāra's Vṛttaratnākara . The most exhaustive compilations, such as

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1952-426: Is unusual in having a prestopped velar lateral /ᶢʟ/ as its only liquid. Meter (poetry) In poetry , metre ( Commonwealth spelling ) or meter ( American spelling ; see spelling differences ) is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse . Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse metre, or a certain set of metres alternating in a particular order. The study and

2013-436: The Ancient Greek word ὑγρός ( hygrós , transl.  moist ) to describe the sonorant consonants ( /l, r, m, n/ ) of classical Greek . It is assumed that the term referred to their changing or inconsistent (or "fluid") effect on meter in classical Greek verse when they occur as the second member of a consonant cluster (see below). This word was calqued into Latin as liquidus (possibly because of

2074-597: The Iberian languages contrast four liquid phonemes. /l/ , /ʎ/ , /ɾ/ , and a fourth phoneme that is an alveolar trill in all but many varieties of Portuguese , where it is a uvular trill or fricative (also, the majority of Spanish speakers lack /ʎ/ and use the central /ʝ/ instead). Some European languages, for example Russian and Irish , contrast a palatalized lateral–rhotic pair with an unpalatalized (or velarized ) set (e.g. /lʲ/ /rʲ/ /l/ /r/ in Russian). Elsewhere in

2135-408: The hendecasyllable favoured by Catullus and Martial, which can be described as: x x — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — ∪ — — (where "—" = long, "∪" = short, and "x x" can be realized as "— ∪" or "— —" or "∪ —") Macron and breve notation: – = stressed/long syllable , ◡ = unstressed/short syllable If the line has only one foot, it is called a monometer ; two feet, dimeter ; three is trimeter ; four

2196-704: The iamb in two syllables and the anapest in three. (See Metrical foot for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.) The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon. The four major types are: accentual verse , accentual-syllabic verse , syllabic verse and quantitative verse . The alliterative verse found in Old English, Middle English, and some modern English poems can be added to this list, as it operates on somewhat different principles than accentual verse. Alliterative verse pairs two phrases (half-lines) joined by alliteration; while there are usually two stresses per half-line, variations in

2257-455: The root tul- "to come" and the past participle suffix - nut . A specific form of liquid assimilation, liquid harmony , is present is some languages. In Sundanese, some morphemes have two different realisations depending on what liquid is present in the root. Liquids are also prone to dissimilation when they occur in sequence. For example, Old Italian co l onne ll o "colonel" is borrowed into Middle French as co r onne l , which

2318-602: The syllable nucleus . Their third formants are generally non-predictable based on the first two formants. Another important feature is their complex articulation , which makes them a hard consonant class to study with precision and the last consonants to be produced by children during their phonological development . They are also more likely to undergo certain types of phonological changes such as assimilation , dissimilation and metathesis . Most languages have at least one liquid in their phonemic inventory . English has two, /l/ and /ɹ/. The grammarian Dionysius Thrax used

2379-542: The 16th. A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants. For example, the word kataba, which syllabifies as ka-ta-ba , contains three short vowels and is made up of three short syllables. A long syllable contains either a long vowel or a short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word maktūbun which syllabifies as mak-tū-bun . These are the only syllable types possible in Classical Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow

2440-442: The English language is most famously represented in the plays of William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though Tennyson ( Ulysses , The Princess ) and Wordsworth ( The Prelude ) also make notable use of it. A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a heroic couplet , a verse form which was used so often in the 18th century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see Pale Fire for

2501-532: The Great . A can be seen on his standard known as the Labarum . The rho with a stroke through its tail is used for abbreviations involving rho, most notably in γϼ for γράμμα as a unit of measurement. These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style: Liquid consonant In linguistics ,

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2562-535: The Western world and elsewhere is based on patterns of syllables of particular types. The familiar type of metre in English-language poetry is called qualitative metre , with stressed syllables coming at regular intervals (e.g. in iambic pentameters , usually every even-numbered syllable). Many Romance languages use a scheme that is somewhat similar but where the position of only one particular stressed syllable (e.g.

2623-471: The accomplished scholar cannot utilize and apply it with ease and total confidence. Dr. ˀIbrāhīm ˀAnīs, one of the most distinguished and celebrated pillars of Arabic literature and the Arabic language in the 20th century, states the issue clearly in his book Mūsīqā al-Sʰiˁr: “I am aware of no [other] branch of Arabic studies which embodies as many [technical] terms as does [al-Kʰalīl’s] prosody, few and distinct as

2684-447: The actual use of metres and forms of versification are both known as prosody . (Within linguistics , " prosody " is used in a more general sense that includes not only poetic metre but also the rhythmic aspects of prose , whether formal or informal, that vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions.) An assortment of features can be identified when classifying poetry and its metre. The metre of most poetry of

2745-439: The classic tonguetwister st r č p r st sk r z k r k "push (your) finger through (your) throat." This is also true for General American English (see the words barr el and anch or ) and other English accents . Sequences of an obstruent and a liquid consonant are often ambiguous as far as syllabification is concerned. In these cases, whether the two consonants are part of the same syllable or not heavily depends on

2806-439: The first scholar to subject Arabic poetry to a meticulous, painstaking metrical analysis. Unfortunately, he fell short of producing a coherent theory; instead, he was content to merely gather, classify, and categorize the primary data—a first step which, though insufficient, represents no mean accomplishment. Therefore, al-Kʰalīl has left a formulation of utmost complexity and difficulty which requires immense effort to master; even

2867-403: The hierarchy of syllable peaks, which means that liquids are theoretically more likely to be syllabic (or, in other words, be part of a syllable nucleus ) than any other consonants, although some studies show that syllabic nasals are overall more favoured. Thus Czech and other Slavic languages allow their liquid consonants /l/ and /r/ to be the center of their syllables – as witnessed by

2928-497: The individual language, and closely related languages can behave differently (such as Icelandic and Faroese). In Latin and Ancient Greek, obstruent + liquid consonant clusters (known as muta cum liquida ) supposedly were ambiguous in this sense, and as such were often used to manipulate meter. Acoustically , liquids seem to have a third formant of unexpected value when compared to the first and second formants. This contrasts with non-liquid approximants , whose third formant value

2989-455: The last) needs to be fixed. The alliterative metre of the old Germanic poetry of languages such as Old Norse and Old English was radically different, but was still based on stress patterns. Some classical languages, in contrast, used a different scheme known as quantitative metre , where patterns were based on syllable weight rather than stress. In the dactylic hexameters of Classical Latin and Classical Greek , for example, each of

3050-466: The letter is written in Greek as ῥῶ (polytonic) or ρω/ ρο (monotonic). Letters that arose from rho include Roman R and Cyrillic Er (Р). The characters ρ and ϱ are also conventionally used outside the Greek alphabetical context in science and mathematics . The letter rho overlaid with chi forms the Chi Rho symbol, used to represent Jesus Christ . It was first used by Emperor Constantine

3111-435: The meters are: al-Kʰalīl’s disciples employed a large number of infrequent items, assigning to those items certain technical denotations which—invariably—require definition and explanation. …. As to the rules of metric variation, they are numerous to the extent that they defy memory and impose a taxing course of study. …. In learning them, a student faces severe hardship which obscures all connection with an artistic genre—indeed,

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3172-465: The metre of a verse can be described as a sequence of feet , each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types – such as relatively unstressed/stressed (the norm for English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical Latin and Greek poetry). Iambic pentameter , a common metre in English poetry, is based on a sequence of five iambic feet or iambs , each consisting of a relatively unstressed syllable (here represented with "˘" above

3233-521: The modern ones by Patwardhan and Velankar contain over 600 metres. This is a substantially larger repertoire than in any other metrical tradition. The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their weight as either "long" syllables or "short" syllables (indicated as dum and di below). These are also called "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels. The foot

3294-450: The most artistic of all—namely, poetry. ………. It is in this fashion that [various] authors dealt with the subject under discussion over a period of eleven centuries: none of them attempted to introduce a new approach or to simplify the rules. ………. Is it not time for a new, simple presentation which avoids contrivance, displays close affinity to [the art of] poetry, and perhaps renders the science of prosody palatable as well as manageable?” In

3355-419: The number of stresses do occur. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse

3416-547: The number of syllables only. The most common form in French is the Alexandrin , with twelve syllables a verse, and in classical Chinese five characters, and thus five syllables. But since each Chinese character is pronounced using one syllable in a certain tone , classical Chinese poetry also had more strictly defined rules, such as thematic parallelism or tonal antithesis between lines. In many Western classical poetic traditions,

3477-528: The other side, there are many indigenous languages in the Amazon Basin and eastern North America, as well as a few in Asia and Africa, with no liquids. Polynesian languages typically have only one liquid, which may be either a lateral or a rhotic. Non-Polynesian Oceanic languages usually have both /l/ and /r/ , occasionally more (e.g. Araki has /l/ , /ɾ/ , /r/ ) or less (e.g. Mwotlap has only /l/ ). Hiw

3538-664: The six feet making up the line was either a dactyl (long-short-short) or a spondee (long-long): a "long syllable" was literally one that took longer to pronounce than a short syllable: specifically, a syllable consisting of a long vowel or diphthong or followed by two consonants. The stress pattern of the words made no difference to the metre. A number of other ancient languages also used quantitative metre, such as Sanskrit , Persian , Old Church Slavonic and Classical Arabic (but not Biblical Hebrew ). Finally, non-stressed languages that have little or no differentiation of syllable length, such as French or Chinese, base their verses on

3599-562: The syllable) followed by a relatively stressed one (here represented with "/" above the syllable) – "da-DUM"="˘ /": This approach to analyzing and classifying metres originates from Ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as Homer , Pindar , Hesiod , and Sappho . However some metres have an overall rhythmic pattern to the line that cannot easily be described using feet. This occurs in Sanskrit poetry; see Vedic metre and Sanskrit metre . It also occurs in some Western metres, such as

3660-445: The vowels are both followed by two consonants. The third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by the main caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee. The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem Evangeline : Notice how the first line: Follows this pattern: Also important in Greek and Latin poetry

3721-641: The world, two liquids of the types mentioned above remains the most common attribute of a language's consonant inventory except in North America and Australia. A majority of indigenous North American languages do not have rhotics at all and there is a wide variety of lateral sounds , though most are obstruent laterals rather than liquids. Most indigenous Australian languages , in contrast, are very rich in liquids, with some having as many as seven distinct liquids. They typically include dental, alveolar, retroflex and palatal laterals, and as many as three rhotics. On

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