Misplaced Pages

#539460

77-426: The cathedral church is thought to have been founded by the bishop Nicasius in the early 5th century. Clovis was baptized a Christian here by Saint Remigius , the bishop of Reims, about a century later. He was the first Frankish king to receive this sacrament. Construction of the present Reims Cathedral began in the 13th century and concluded in the 14th century. A prominent example of High Gothic architecture, it

154-603: A face-lift recently and entered the 21st century as one of the most fashionable shopping centres in Eastern Europe . An early French arcade is the Passage du Caire created in 1798 as a tribute to the French campaign in Egypt and Syria . It was appreciated by the public for its protection from the weather, noise and filth of the streets. A year later American architect William Thayer created

231-490: A labyrinth and master masons adds weight to the argument that such patterns were an allusion to the emerging status of the architect (through their association with the mythical architect Daedalus , who built the Cretan labyrinth of Minos ). The cathedral also contains further evidence of the rising status of the architect in the tomb of Hugues Libergier (d. 1268, architect of the now-destroyed Reims church of St-Nicaise). Not only

308-424: A less expensive and more functional Neoclassical design submitted by Jean-Baptiste Vallin de la Mothe (1729–1800). Throughout the following century, Gostiny Dvor was augmented, resulting in ten indoor streets and as many as 178 shops by the 20th century. During the post- World War II reconstructions, its inner walls were demolished and a huge shopping mall came into being. This massive 18th-century structure got

385-437: A mix between Classic Gothic and High Gothic . In the rose windows of the western façade, however, the glass exceeds the round frames to fill the whole pointed-arched areas available (i.e. Rayonnant , an advanced form of High Gothic). Unusually, the names of the cathedral's successive architects, succeededing each other until the completion of the cathedral's structural work in 1275, are known. A labyrinth built into floor of

462-409: A multiple-vendor space, operating under a covered roof. Typically, the roof was constructed of glass to allow for natural light and to reduce the need for candles or electric lighting. The 18th and 19th century arcades were designed to attract the genteel middle classes. In time, these arcades came to be the place to shop and to be seen. Arcades offered shoppers the promise of an enclosed space away from

539-546: A popular nineteenth-century pastime for the emerging middle classes. The inspiration for the grand shopping arcades may have derived from the fashionable open loggias of Florence however medieval vernacular examples known as 'butterwalks' were traditional jettied colonnades in British and North European marketplaces; examples remain for example in Totnes and Dartmouth in Devon . During

616-402: A similar plan to the north transept, but lacks portals. Instead, there is a group of three narrow lancet windows divided by slender columns and topped by small rose windows, and above them a large rose window. The original south rose window was destroyed by a hurricane in 1580, and was replaced by a window with a simpler design of tracery. The upper gallery of statues underwent major restoration in

693-540: A sinner, and defend me by thy intercession from this disease. Amen. A Benedictine abbey [fr] in Reims was later named in his honour. Arcade (architecture) An arcade is a succession of contiguous arches , with each arch supported by a colonnade of columns or piers . Exterior arcades are designed to provide a sheltered walkway for pedestrians; they include many loggias , but here arches are not an essential element. An arcade may feature arches on both sides of

770-456: A time into a Temple of Reason . Most of the remaining furniture and funeral monuments were destroyed, the reliquaries in the treasury melted down for the gold, and the bells melted down to make cannon. Mobs hammered much of the sculpture of the grand portal and the more evident symbols of royalty, such as the fleur-de-lis emblems, and the royal Hand of Justice were burned. However, most of the medieval sculpture survived relatively intact. With

847-470: A triangular pigeon with a sculptural depiction of the Annunciation . The pignon is decorated with crockets and other elaborate ornament that became characteristic of the late Gothic Flamboyant style. The north transept is flanked by two tall buttresses, which are crowned by slender tabernacles containing statues of kings, covered with spires decorated with more late Gothic crockets. The south transept has

SECTION 10

#1732845114540

924-630: Is arcature , which is either a small arcade or a blind arcade . Arcades go back to at least the Ancient Greek architecture of the Hellenistic period , and were much used by the Romans, for example at the base of the Colosseum . Church cloisters very often use arcading. Islamic architecture very often uses arcades in and outside mosques in particular. In Renaissance architecture elegant arcading

1001-403: Is another early shopping arcade. Sprawling at the intersection of Nevsky Prospekt and Sadovaya Street for over one kilometer and embracing the area of 53,000 m (570,000 sq ft), the indoor complex of more than 100 shops took twenty-eight years to construct. Building commenced in 1757 to an elaborate design by Bartolomeo Rastrelli , but that subsequently was discarded in favour of

1078-426: Is he given the honour of an engraved slab; he is shown holding a miniature model of his church (an honour formerly reserved for noble donors) and wearing the academic garb befitting an intellectual. Even after the structural work had been completed in 1275, a lot of work remained to be done. The Gallery of Kings on the west front, and the octagonal upper towers were not finished until the 1460s. Documentary records show

1155-492: Is memorialized at Reims Cathedral with two statues: an equestrian statue outside the church and another within the church. On 24 July 1481, a fire caused by the negligence of workers covering the high wood-and-lead flèche (spire) that was being constructed over the transept destroyed the part of the spire's framework, the cathedral's central bell tower, and the galleries at the base of the cathedral roof, while dripping molten roofing lead caused further damage. However, recovery

1232-455: Is still in the same place, directly over the crypt, where it has been for 15 centuries. Beginning in 976, the archbishop Adalbero began to enlarge the Carolingian cathedral. The historian Richerus , a pupil of Adalbero, gives a very precise description of the work carried out by the archbishop: "He completely destroyed the arcades which, extending from the entrance to nearly a quarter of

1309-480: Is the gallery of kings, composed of 56 statues with a height of 4.5 m (15 ft), with Clovis I, the first Christian king of the Franks, in the center, Clotilde to his right, and Saint Remigius to his left. The two bell towers were originally planned to have spires making them three times taller than the nave, but these were never rebuilt. The three portals contain an elaborate sculptural program that illustrates to

1386-460: Is the patron saint of smallpox victims. Sources placing his death in 407 credit him with prophesying the invasion of France by the Vandals . He notified his people of this vision, telling them to prepare. When asked if the people should fight or not, Nicasius responded, "Let us abide the mercy of God and pray for our enemies. I am ready to give myself for my people." Later, when the barbarians were at

1463-612: The Apocalypse of John , the only major Gothic cathedral to combine these two themes. The figure of Christ passing judgement is placed under the gable over the top of the portal, with angels carrying symbols of the Passion of Christ . Other figures represent the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse , as well as a multitude of angels, and allegorical symbols of the vices and virtues. The sculpture of

1540-587: The Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert in Brussels which was inaugurated in 1847 and Istanbul's Çiçek Pasajı opened in 1870. Shopping arcades were the precursor to the modern shopping mall , and the word "arcade" is now often used for malls which do not use the architectural form at all. The Palais-Royal , which opened in 1784 and became one of the most important marketplaces in Paris, is generally regarded as

1617-559: The Imperial German Army deliberately shelled the cathedral in order to shake French morale. The cathedral, former Abbey of Saint-Remi , and the Palace of Tau were added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1991. On his 74th Pastoral Visit , Pope John Paul II visited Reims on 26 September 1996 for the 1500th anniversary of the baptism of Clovis. While there, the Pope prayed at

SECTION 20

#1732845114540

1694-571: The XII Saxon corps arrived at the city and later that day the Imperial German Army began shelling the city. The guns, located 7 km (4.3 mi) away in Les Mesneux , ceased firing when the XII Saxon Corps sent two officers and a city employee to ask them to stop shelling the city. On 12 September, the occupying German Army decided to place their wounded in the cathedral over the protests of

1771-515: The nave at the time of construction or shortly after (similar to examples at Chartres and Amiens ) included the names of these four master masons ( Jean d'Orbais , Jean-le-Loup, Gaucher of Reims and Bernard de Soissons ) and the number of years they worked there, though art historians still disagree over who was responsible for which parts of the building. The labyrinth itself was destroyed in 1779, but its details and inscriptions are known from 18th-century drawings. The clear association here between

1848-400: The "forest" of wooden timbers under the lead-covered roof, setting it on fire, and completely destroying the roof. The bells melted, windows were blown out, and the sculpture and parts of the walls were damaged. The lead in the roofing melted and poured through the mouths of the stone gargoyles , damaging, in turn, the adjoining bishop's palace. Images of the cathedral in ruins were shown during

1925-553: The 16th-century, a pattern of market trading using mobile stalls under covered arcades was established in Florence, from where it spread throughout Italy. Examples of the earliest open loggias include: Mercato Nuovo (1547) by Giovanni Battista del Tasso (and funded by the Medici family ); Mercato Vecchio, Florence by Giorgio Vasari (1567) and Loggia del Grano (1619) by Giulio Parigi . Arcades soon spread across Europe, North America and

2002-560: The 19th century. The triangular pignon at the top is in the Flamboyant style, with sculpture depicting the Assumption of the Virgin . At the peak of the pignon is a statue of a Sagittarius , an ancient Roman archer, with his bow. Nicasius of Rheims Saint Nicasius of Reims ( French : Saint-Nicaise ; d. 407 or 451 ) was a Bishop of Reims . He founded the first Reims Cathedral and

2079-471: The Abbe Maurice Landrieux, and spread 15,000 bales of straw on the floor of the cathedral for this purpose. The next day French soldiers under General Franchet d'Esperey re-entered the city, but German wounded were left in the cathedral. Six days later, a shell exploded in the bishop's palace, killing three and injuring 15. On 18 September a prolonged bombardment began and on the 19th shells struck

2156-672: The Catholic church has an agreement for its exclusive use. The French state pays for its restoration and upkeep. The settlement of a tribe of Gauls called the Remes, named Durocortorum, had been recorded by Julius Caesar in his accounts of the Gallic Wars . During the High Roman Empire, it became the capital of a province extending to the delta of the Rhine , and in the 3rd century A.D. was capital of

2233-627: The High Street front with its four entrances. In 1772, the newly formed Market committee, half of whose members came from the town and half from the university, accepted an estimate of nine hundred and sixteen pounds ten shillings, for the building of twenty butchers' shops. Twenty more soon followed, and after 1773 meat was allowed to be sold only inside the market. From this nucleus the market grew, with stalls for garden produce, pig meat, dairy products and fish. Gostiny Dvor in St Petersburg , Russia

2310-672: The King of the Franks , was baptised there in about 496 A.D. by Saint Remigius (also known as Saint Remi ). This was the event that inspired the long tradition of royal coronations at Reims. In 816, Louis the Pious , the King of the Franks and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire , was crowned in Reims by Pope Stephen IV . The coronation and ensuing celebrations revealed the poor condition and inadequate size of

2387-454: The Palais-Royal became one of the first examples of a new style of shopping arcade, frequented by both the aristocracy and the middle classes. It developed a reputation as being a site of sophisticated conversation, revolving around the salons, cafés, and bookshops, but also became a place frequented by off-duty soldiers and was a favourite haunt of prostitutes, many of whom rented apartments in

Reims Cathedral - Misplaced Pages Continue

2464-589: The Roman Empire, and identification of 6th century outbreaks of the disease. From his supposed survival of smallpox, Nicasius became the patron saint of smallpox victims. One prayer ran: In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, may the Lord protect these persons and may the work of these virgins ward off the smallpox. St. Nicaise had the smallpox and he asked the Lord [to preserve] whoever carried his name inscribed. O St. Nicaise! Thou illustrious bishop and martyr, pray for me,

2541-631: The Roman province known as Second Belgium. The first Christian church there was founded by the first bishop, Saint Sixtus of Reims between 250 and 300. At the beginning of the 5th century, in the Merovingian period, the Bishop Nicasius transferred the cathedral its present location, the site formerly occupied by Gallo-Roman bath built by the Emperor Constantine . The new church was dedicated to

2618-608: The Virgin Mary, anticipating the decision of the Council of Ephesus in 431 establishing her enhanced status. The new cathedral, with the plan of a square exterior and a circular interior, measured approximately 20 m (66 ft) by 55 m (180 ft). In the 1990s, the Baptistry of this original Merovingian church, directly under the present cathedral, was excavated and fragments of the old structure were brought to light. Clovis I ,

2695-532: The acquisition of land to the west of the site in 1218, suggesting the new cathedral was substantially larger than its predecessors, the lengthening of the nave presumably being an adaptation to afford room for the crowds that attended the coronations. The towers, 81 m (266 ft) tall, were originally designed to rise 120 m (390 ft). The south tower holds just two great bells; one of them, named "Charlotte" by Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine in 1570, weighs more than 10,000 kg (10 t). Following

2772-515: The antipodes. Examples of these grand shopping arcades include: Palais Royal in Paris (opened in 1784); Passage de Feydeau in Paris (opened in 1791); London's Piccadilly Arcade (1810) and Milan's Galleria Vittorio Emanuele (1878). Some examples of arcades in North America include New York's Paddock Arcade (1850), Ohio's Dayton Arcade (1904), and Rhode Island's Westminster Arcade (1828). Other notable nineteenth century grand arcades include

2849-517: The basilica, up to the top, so that the whole church, embellished, acquired more extent and a more suitable form (...). He decorated the main altar of the golden cross and enveloped it with a resplendent trellis (...). He lit up the same church with windows in which various stories were represented and endowed it with bells roaring like thunder." The prestige of the Holy Ampulla , the sacred vial filled with myrrh with which French Kings were anointed,

2926-467: The building. One of the earliest British examples of a shopping arcade, the Covered Market, Oxford , England was officially opened on 1 November 1774 and is still active today. The Covered Market was started in response to a general wish to clear "untidy, messy and unsavoury stalls" from the main streets of central Oxford. John Gwynn , the architect of Magdalen Bridge , drew up the plans and designed

3003-509: The cathedral While conducting the Council of Reims in 1131, Pope Innocent II anointed and crowned Louis VII , the son of the ruling king Louis VI in the cathedral. By the 12th century, the Carolingian cathedral was considered too small for the ambitions of the Archbishop, Samson of Mauvoisin (1140-1160). He preserved the existing nave and transept but rebuilt and enlarged the two ends of

3080-614: The cathedral entrance and with Louis Leygue copied many of the other sculptures on the cathedral façade. He also executed a statue of St Thomas for the north tower. Beginning in 1967, many of the statues from the exterior, such as the smiling angel, were moved to the interior of the Tau Palace for protection, and replaced by copies. The Franco-German reconciliation was symbolically formalized in July 1962 by French president Charles de Gaulle and German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer , where, in 1914,

3157-486: The cathedral. Between 1741 and 1749, the lower windows and the medieval furniture, the principal altar, the choir stalls, and the choir screen were all replaced with furnishings more in keeping with the theological requirements and taste of the era. The sculpture of the portals was also restored. In 1793, during the French Revolution , the cathedral was closed and briefly turned into a storehouse for grain, and then for

Reims Cathedral - Misplaced Pages Continue

3234-479: The cathedral. He demolished the west front and adjoining tower in order to build two matching flanking towers, in imitation of the Royal Abbey of Saint Denis outside of Paris , whose choir dedication Samson himself had attended a few years earlier. The new church was longer than the old cathedral, 110 m (360 ft). On the east end, he created a larger choir and a disambulatory and ring of radiating chapels. At

3311-416: The chaos that characterised the noisy, dirty streets; a warm, dry space away from the harsh elements, and a safe haven where people could socialise and spend their leisure time. As thousands of glass covered arcades spread across Europe, they became grander and more ornately decorated. By the mid-nineteenth century, they had become prominent centres of fashion and social life. Promenading in these arcades became

3388-621: The control of his uncles. After Henry V of England defeated Charles VI 's army at the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October 1415, most of northern France including Reims fell to the English. They held Reims and the cathedral until 1429, when it was captured by Joan of Arc , allowing the dauphin Charles to be crowned king on 17 July 1429. For her feat -- a turning point in the Hundred Years' War -- Joan

3465-401: The death of the infant King John I , his uncle Philip was hurriedly crowned at Reims, 9 January 1317. During the Hundred Years' War 's Reims campaign the city was under siege by the English from 1359 to 1360, but the siege failed. In 1380, Reims Cathedral was the location of Charles VI 's coronation and eight years later Charles called a council at Reims in 1388 to take personal rule from

3542-452: The earliest example of the grand shopping arcades. Originally, a royal palace, the complex consisted of gardens, shops and entertainment venues situated under the original colonnades. The area boasted some 145 boutiques, cafés, salons, hair salons, bookshops, museums, and numerous refreshment kiosks as well as two theatres. The retail outlets specialised in luxury goods such as fine jewellery, furs, paintings and furniture designed to appeal to

3619-524: The early cathedral. Beginning in about 818, the archbishop Ebbo and the royal architect Rumaud began to build a much larger church from the ground up on the same site, using stone from the old city ramparts. The work was interrupted in 835, and then resumed under a new archbishop, Hincmar , with the support of Emperor Charles the Bald . The interior of the church was adorned with gilding , mosaics , paintings , sculptures and tapestries . On 18 October 862, in

3696-513: The end of the century, the nave and the transept were still of the Carolingian style while the apse and façade were in the Early Gothic style. On 6 May 1210, the partly Carolingian and partly Early Gothic cathedral was destroyed by fire, allegedly due to "carelessness." One year to the day afterwards, archbishop Aubrey laid the first stone of the new cathedral's chevet . The work on the new cathedral moved with exceptional speed, because Reims

3773-609: The fact that Clovis I had been baptised there, and the political power of the archbishop of Reims led to Reims becoming the regular site of the coronation of the French monarch , a tradition that was established with the coronation of Henry I of France in 1027. All but seven of France's future kings -- Hugh Capet , Robert II , Louis VI , John I , Henry IV , Louis XVIII , and Louis Philippe I -- were crowned at Reims. The cathedral hosted other royal ceremonies as well. On 19 May 1051, Henry I of France and Anne of Kiev were married in

3850-471: The galleries of the nave in a more imaginative 13th-century Gothic style. In 1888. they were followed by Denis Darcy and Paul Gout, who followed more closely the historic architecture, particularly in the restoration of the west rose window. On the outbreak of the First World War, the cathedral was commissioned as a hospital, and troops and arms were removed from its immediate vicinity. On 4 September 1914,

3927-489: The gates of the city, he decided to attempt to slow them down so that more of his people could escape. He was killed by the Vandals either at the altar of his church or in its doorway. He was killed with Jucundus, his lector, Florentius, his deacon, and Eutropia, his virgin sister. After the killing of Nicasius and his colleagues, the Vandals are said to have been frightened away from the area, according to some sources even leaving

SECTION 50

#1732845114540

4004-514: The ground. He was sometimes depicted in art walking with the upper part of his head and its mitre in his hand. Sources placing his death in 451 record similar acts but concerning the Huns rather than the Vandals. These sources – but not those concerning the Vandals – further relate that Nicasius survived a bout of smallpox . This claim has been made more credible by research showing a long history of smallpox in Egypt, suggestions of its spread through

4081-571: The illiterate churchgoers the messages of the Bible. The central portal is devoted to the Virgin Mary , the patron of the cathedral. The principal scene under the gable of the top of the portal shows the symbolic marriage of Christ with his church, represented by Mary. Mary is also the figure on the statue-column in the centre of the doorway. The statuary of the south portal depicts the Last Judgement and

4158-459: The later 19th century, focusing first on the gables and statues on the west front (1826–30), and then the upper galleries, windows and towers (1845–60), under Jean-Jacques Arveuf . In 1860 He was replaced by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc , who modified the gallery of the choir and the apse closer to their original medieval appearance. He was succeeded by two more architects, Eugene Millet and Victor Ruprich-Robert , who took considerable liberties in remaking

4235-491: The members of the Chapter were able to meet in the choir, showing that the vaults of the apse and the five last traverses of the nave on the east, where the stalls were located, were finished, but the nave was not roofed until 1299 (when the French king lifted the tax on lead used for that purpose). Work on the western façade did even not begin until 1252, and the portals were not completed until after 1260. Thereafter work moved from

4312-476: The nave were completed in 1505. These were so expensive that the remaining planned projects, including a 170 meter tall bell tower over the transept, spires on the west front and the planned upper towers flanking the transept, were never built. Following the death of Francis I , Henry II was crowned King of France on 25 July 1547 in Reims Cathedral. The 18th century saw the first major reconstruction inside

4389-664: The north portal depicts the Crucifixion of Christ , which is shown under the gable at the top of the portal; other scenes show the Resurrection , and the Ascension of Jesus to heaven. To the left of the north portal is one of the most recognisable of all the sculptures of Reims, the Smiling Angel , Gabriel, with Mary, on the north side. The angel was damaged during the First World War, but repaired and returned to its place. Fire destroyed

4466-405: The original roof and the spires in 1481: of the four towers that flanked the transepts, nothing remains above the height of the roof. The southwest tower contains the massive bourdon, a bell 2.46 meters in diameter, and weighing ten tons, given to the cathedral in 1570 by the cardinal Charles of Lorraine; it also contains the second bourdon, weighing seven tons, and 2.2 meters in diameter. This bell

4543-495: The presence of the Emperor, Hincmar dedicated the new church, which measured 86 m (282 ft) and had two transepts . At the beginning of the 10th century, an ancient crypt underneath the original church was rediscovered. Under the archbishop Heriveus , the crypt (which had been the initial centre of the previous churches above it) was cleared, renovated, and then rededicated to the sainted bishop Remigius. The cathedral altar

4620-589: The restoration of the French monarchy after the downfall of Napoleon, the practice of royal coronations at Reims resumed, but only briefly. The last king of France to be crowned there was Charles X in 1825. His reign was deeply unpopular, and he was overthrown in the Revolution of 1830 and replaced by a constitutional monarch, Louis Philippe I , who was sworn in at the Parliament in Paris rather than crowned in Reims. A series of restoration projects were carried out in

4697-404: The resulting violence and the entire cathedral chapter fled the city, leaving it under an interdict (effectively banning all public worship and sacraments). Work on the new cathedral was suspended for three years, only resuming in 1236 after the clergy returned to the city and the interdict was lifted following mediation by the king and the pope. Construction then continued more slowly. In 1241,

SECTION 60

#1732845114540

4774-425: The same chapel where Jean-Baptiste de La Salle celebrated his first Mass in 1678. On 8 October 2016, a plaque bearing the names of the 31 kings crowned in Reims was placed in the cathedral in the presence of the archbishop Thierry Jordan and Prince Louis-Alphonse, Duke of Anjou , one of many pretenders to the French throne. The west façade, the entry to the cathedral, particularly glorifies royalty. Most of it

4851-475: The structure. In the 1920s, the foundations of the earlier church from the Carolingian period were discovered under the cathedral and excavated. The work was completed and the cathedral was reopened in 1938. Restoration work on the church has continued since 1938, repairing the damage caused by the war and by pollution. In 1955 Georges Saupique made a copy of the Coronation of the Virgin, which can be seen above

4928-464: The treasure they had already gathered. Accounts of his martyrdom credit him with being among the cephalophores ("head-carriers") like Saint Denis . Nicasius was said to have been reciting Psalm 119 : he was then decapitated as he reached the verse Adhaesit pavimento anima mea ("My soul is attached unto dust") and then continued reciting Vivifica me Domine secundum verbum tuum ("Revive me, Lord, with your words") even after his head had fallen to

5005-401: The use of bar tracery , with the panes of stained glass separated by thin stone mullions . Twelve stone mullions radiate outward from a central eye. This became a major characteristic of Rayonnant Gothic architecture. Above this window an arch full of sculpture, and above the continuation of the gallery of kings from the west façade, with seven statues of apostles and prophets. At the top is

5082-485: The walkway. Alternatively, a blind arcade superimposes arcading against a solid wall. Blind arcades are a feature of Romanesque architecture that influenced Gothic architecture . In the Gothic architectural tradition, the arcade can be located in the interior, in the lowest part of the wall of the nave , supporting the triforium and the clerestory in a cathedral , or on the exterior, in which they are usually part of

5159-582: The walkways that surround the courtyard and cloisters . A different, related meaning is "a covered passage with shops on one or both sides". Many medieval open arcades housed shops or stalls, either in the arcaded space itself, or set into the main wall behind. From this, "arcade" has become a general word for a group of shops in a single building, regardless of the architectural form . The word "arcade" comes from French arcade from Provençal arcada or Italian arcata , based on Latin arcus , ‘bow’ (see arc and arch ). A related but ambiguous term

5236-452: The war by the indignant French, accusing the Germans of the deliberate destruction of buildings rich in national and cultural heritage, while German propaganda blamed the deaths of prisoners on the French, who at gunpoint prevented them fleeing the fire. Single shells continued to strike the ruined building for several years, despite repeated pleas by Pope Benedict XV . At the end of the war, it

5313-522: The wealthy elite. Retailers operating out of the Palais complex were among the first in Europe to abandon the system of bartering, and adopt fixed-prices thereby sparing their clientele the hassle of bartering. Stores were fitted with long glass exterior windows which allowed the emerging middle-classes to window shop and indulge in fantasies, even when they may not have been able to afford the high retail prices. Thus,

5390-426: The west to the east, with the completion of the nave; the level of the rose windows was completed between 1275 and 1280. The roof of the nave and upper galleries were finished in 1299. A comparison of the roses of the western façade to the roses of the transepts demonstrates the temporal stylistic progress: the rose windows of the transepts are decorated by bar tracery, but all glass is inside the round frames -- that is,

5467-406: Was built to replace an earlier church destroyed by fire in 1210. Although little damaged during the French Revolution , the present cathedral saw extensive restoration in the 19th century. It was severely damaged during World War I and the church was again restored in the 20th century. Since the 1905 law on the separation of church and state, the cathedral has been owned by the French state, while

5544-477: Was completed at the same time, giving it an unusual unity of style. It is harmonic or balanced, with two towers of equal height and three portals entering into the nave. The porches of the portals, with archivolts containing many sculptures, protrude from the main wall. Above and slightly behind the central portal is a large rose window at the level of the clerestory, with tall arched windows flanked by statuary under pointed canopies projected forward. Above this level

5621-404: Was made in 1849. The north transept, like the west façade, has three portals surrounded by sculpture. They are dedicated to the Virgin Mary (left); Christian saints (centre) and the Last Judgement (right). Above and set back from the portals are three small rose windows, and then a large rose window covered with an arcade full of sculpture. The north rose window is one of the earliest examples of

5698-667: Was often used as a prominent feature of facades, for example in the Ospedale degli Innocenti (commissioned 1419) or the courtyard of the Palazzo Bardi , both by Filippo Brunelleschi in Florence . The French architect, Bertrand Lemoine, described the period, 1786 to 1935, as l’Ère des passages couverts (the Arcade Era). He was referring to the grand shopping "arcades" that flourished across Europe during that period. A shopping arcade refers to

5775-506: Was one of the first buildings to use stones and other materials of standardised sizes, so each stone did not have to be cut to measure. In July 1221, the chapel at the east end of the cathedral entered use. In 1230, work began on the west front, indicating that the nave was nearly complete. In 1233, a long-running dispute between the cathedral chapter and the townsfolk (regarding issues of taxation and legal jurisdiction) boiled over into open revolt. Several clerics were killed or injured during

5852-509: Was proposed to keep the cathedral in its damaged state as a monument to victims of the war, but this idea was finally rejected. A major restoration project began in 1919, led by Henri Deneux, chief architect of the service of French historic monuments. The restoration received major funding from the Rockefeller Foundation , and sometimes made use of modern techniques and materials, including prefabricated reinforced concrete, to strengthen

5929-451: Was quick with kings Charles VIII and Louis XII making donations to the cathedral's reconstruction. In particular, they granted the cathedral an octroi of the Gabelle salt tax. In gratitude, the new roof was adorned by fleur-de-lis and the royal coat of arms "affixed to the top of the façade". However, this work was suspended before the arrows were completed in 1516. The upper galleries of

#539460