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59-503: Together with the Rosen Valley dialect and Ebriach dialect in Carinthia , it is one of the three dialects of Slovene spoken entirely outside the borders of Slovenia. It is unequivocally one of the most unique and difficult dialects to understand for speakers of central Slovene dialects, especially because most Resians are not familiar with standard Slovene. Its distinguishing characteristic

118-554: A dialectal continuum stretching from today's southern Austria to southeast Bulgaria . On the level of dialectology , they are divided into Western South Slavic (Slovene and Serbo-Croatian dialects) and Eastern South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian dialects); these represent separate migrations into the Balkans and were once separated by intervening Hungarian, Romanian, and Albanian populations; as these populations were assimilated, Eastern and Western South Slavic fused with Torlakian as

177-623: A genetic node in Slavic studies : defined by a set of phonological, morphological and lexical innovations (isoglosses) which separate it from the Western and Eastern Slavic groups. That view, however, has been challenged in recent decades (see below). Some innovations encompassing all South Slavic languages are shared with the Eastern Slavic group, but not the Western Slavic. These include: This

236-449: A past conditional. The standard orthography, devised in 1994 by Han Steenwijk, which is still in use today, has 34 letters for Gniva ( Njïwa, Njiva ) and Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ), whereas the other two standard forms have an additional letter, ⟨y⟩ . The alphabet contains the letter ⟨ w ⟩ , a letter that few Slavic languages use (only Polish , Kashubian , and Upper and Lower Sorbian ). According to

295-513: A similar sound. Its consonant inventory is shared with the Littoral dialects, retaining palatal sounds. Han Steenwijk recorded 25 consonant phonemes in San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ) and then also generalized the pronunciation to the other three standard forms, which are definitely similar, except that Stolvizza ( Solbica ) has somewhat different allophones for /g/ and /x/ . Tine Logar also recorded

354-580: A television programme is usually in Cyrillic, but advertisements are usually in Latin. The division is partly based on religion – Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Macedonia (which use Cyrillic) are Orthodox countries, whereas Croatia and Slovenia (which use Latin) are Catholic . The Bosnian language , used by the Muslim Bosniaks , also uses Latin, but in the past used Bosnian Cyrillic . The Glagolitic alphabet

413-490: A transitional dialect. On the other hand, the breakup of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires , followed by formation of nation-states in the 19th and 20th centuries, led to the development and codification of standard languages . Standard Slovene, Bulgarian, and Macedonian are based on distinct dialects. The Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian are based on

472-978: A vowel system without diphthongs, another feature of Resian not seen in any neighboring dialects. The vowels * ọ́ 1 and * ẹ́ 1 turned into o̤ and e̤ , which might have actually happened before * ọ́ 2 and * ẹ́ 2 . Now only * ọ́ and * ẹ́ turned into * i and * u near a nasal consonant. Other changes did not cover the entire territory. The vowels * í 1 and * ú 1 from previously longer syllables turned into i̤ and ṳ , except in San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ), where previously short * í 1 and * ú 1 turned into centralized vowels, whereas elsewhere they turned into e and o . Syllabic * ł̥́ mostly turned into ol , except in Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ) and Uccea ( Učja ), where it turned into ú . The consonant * ɣ then turned into h , or even disappeared. Other changes are specific to each microdialect. Resian retained neuter gender, as well as some dual forms. It uses

531-459: Is Passio Domini ec. , which has been dated between 1830 and 1848 but was probably written by a nonnative speaker. The first longer piece, spanning over 95 pages, was Christjanske uzhilo , dated to somewhere between 1845 and 1850, but it was still a manuscript. The first book was To kristjanske učilo po rozoanskeh , written by Giuseppe Cramaro sometime between 1923 and 1933. There are also numerous instances of Resian written by scholars that studied

590-681: Is centralized , breathy vowels. It borders the Slovene Torre Valley dialect to the south and the Soča dialect to the east, both separated by tall mountain ranges. On the other sides, it mostly borders Friulian , but also Bavarian to the north. It belongs to the Littoral dialect group, although it shows few similarities with other Littoral dialects and evolved from the Carinthian dialect base, northern Slovene, as opposed to other Littoral dialects, which evolved either from western or southern Slovene. It

649-622: Is i or sometimes e (rarely as (i)je ), or mixed ( Ekavian–Ikavian ). Many dialects of Chakavian preserved significant number of Dalmatian words, but also have many loanwords from Venetian , Italian , Greek and other Mediterranean languages. Example: Ča je, je, tako je vavik bilo, ča će bit, će bit, a nekako će već bit! This dialect is spoken primarily in the federal state of Burgenland in Austria and nearby areas in Vienna, Slovakia , and Hungary by descendants of Croats who migrated there during

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708-662: Is a Slovene dialect in the Carinthian dialect group . It is spoken in the Rosen Valley ( German : Rosental , Slovene : Rož ) of Austria, west of a line from Villach to Faak am See and east of a line from Sittersdorf and Lake Klopein to Brückl , excluding the Ebriach dialect area to the southeast. Settlements in the dialect area include Wernberg , Köstenberg , Velden am Wörthersee , Ludmannsdorf , Köttmannsdorf , Viktring , Grafenstein , Tainach , and Rosegg (all north of

767-535: Is considered transitional between the Western and Eastern groups of South Slavic languages. Torlakian is thought to fit together with Bulgarian and Macedonian into the Balkan sprachbund , an area of linguistic convergence caused by long-term contact rather than genetic relation. Because of this some researchers tend to classify it as Southeast Slavic . Each of these primary and secondary dialectal units breaks down into subdialects and accentological isoglosses by region. In

826-538: Is illustrated in the following table: Several isoglosses have been identified which are thought to represent exclusive common innovations in the South Slavic language group. They are prevalently phonological in character, whereas morphological and syntactical isoglosses are much fewer in number. Sussex & Cubberly (2006 :43–44) list the following phonological isoglosses: Most of these are not exclusive in character, however, and are shared with some languages of

885-481: Is no Slovene-speaking minority in that area today because it is mainly populated by Friulian and German speakers. Standard Resian was developed by Han Steenwijk from the University of Padua and his colleagues Alfonso Barazzutti, Milko Matičetov, Pavle Merkù, Giovanni Rotta, and Willem Vermeer in the 1990s and continuing today. To date, they have standardized the writing, pronunciation, and declension . At first it

944-567: Is open to the west, where Friulian is spoken, and separated by tall mountains in other directions. There is a road connecting it to the Uccea Valley, reaching an elevation of more than 1,100 m above sea level, and it is further connected to the Torre and Soča Valleys, where Slovene is spoken. To the south, it is bordered by the Musi ( Mužci ) Mountains, to the east by Mount Canin ( Ćanen, Kanin ), and to

1003-594: Is spoken by fewer than a thousand people and is listed as a definitely endangered language according to UNESCO 's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger . Despite this, Resians value their language and it is being passed down to younger generations. The area where Resian is spoken is practically the same as the area of the Municipality of Resia ( Italian : Comune di Resia ). It is spoken entirely in northeastern Italy , in

1062-523: Is the only one described in sufficient detail thanks to Steenwijk's extensive research. Resian belongs to the western subgroup of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic languages , together with Slovene , which includes the Natisone Valley dialect , and Serbo-Croatian . It represents the far northwestern part of the dialect continuum . The closest written language is the Natisone Valley dialect and

1121-568: The * məglȁ > * mə̀gla shift, which are present today in the Gail Valley dialect, but not in Resian. Final - m in most cases also turned into - n , a feature that also appeared in the Gail Valley dialect. The dialect also devoiced all final obstruents . Resian lost both tonal and length oppositions, which is unlike any neighboring dialect. The diphthongs * iə and * uə monophthongized into * í 2 and * ú 2 , respectively, forming

1180-490: The * sěnȏ > * sě̀no accent shift, but has undergone the * ženȁ → * žèna and optionally * məglȁ → * mə̀gla accent shifts. Due to years of isolated evolution from other Slovene dialects, Resian has developed some iconic features, particularly breathy, centralized vowels that are almost exclusive to Resian, with only some microdialects of the Torre Valley dialect also having

1239-576: The Bessarabian Bulgarians in Ukraine ), share a number of characteristics that set them apart from other Slavic languages : Bulgarian and Macedonian share some of their unusual characteristics with other languages in the Balkans, notably Greek and Albanian (see Balkan sprachbund ). Torlakian dialects are spoken in southeastern Serbia , northern North Macedonia , western Bulgaria , southeastern Kosovo , and pockets of western Romania ; it

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1298-665: The Drava River), and Sankt Jakob im Rosental , Feistritz im Rosental , Windisch Bleiberg , Ferlach , Zell , and Gallizien (south of the Drava River). The Rosen Valley dialect has pitch accent and is distinguished by the preservation of the accent on short syllables following short e and o . The dialect has diphthongs of the type iə < long jat and uə < long o , akanye of e , and development of velar k, g > uvular q, χ , and palatalization of k, g, h > č, ž, š before front vowels. The dialect lacks standard

1357-940: The Friuli-Venezia Giulia region in the province of Udine , making it the only Slovene dialect that is spoken exclusively in Italy. The speakers are settled in villages in the Resia Valley ( Slovene : Rezija ), along the Resia River ( Rezija ), as well as the upper Uccea Valley ( Učja ) on the Italian side. This includes several villages, including (from west to east): San Giorno ( Bilä, Bela ), Prato di Resia ( Ravanca ), Gniva ( Njïwa, Njiva ), Criacis ( Krïžaca, Križeca ), Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ), Carnizza ( Karnïca, Karnica ), Stolvizza ( Solbica ), Coritis ( Korïto, Korito ), and Uccea ( Učja ). The Resia Valley

1416-618: The Slavic languages . There are approximately 30 million speakers, mainly in the Balkans . These are separated geographically from speakers of the other two Slavic branches ( West and East ) by a belt of German , Hungarian and Romanian speakers. The first South Slavic language to be written (also the first attested Slavic language) was the variety of the Eastern South Slavic spoken in Thessaloniki , now called Old Church Slavonic , in

1475-489: The same dialect ( Shtokavian ). Thus, in most cases national and ethnic borders do not coincide with dialectal boundaries. Note : Due to the differing political status of languages/dialects and different historical contexts, the classifications are arbitrary to some degree. The dialects that form the eastern group of South Slavic, spoken mostly in Bulgaria and Macedonia and adjacent areas in neighbouring countries (such as

1534-412: The 14th century; at that time, Resian was mostly influenced by the Gail Valley dialect. In the second stage, it acquired many features of Venetian Slovene dialects and other Littoral dialects. The third stage represents changes that are unique to Resian and cannot be found elsewhere. Until the 13th century, Resian experienced the same evolution as all other Slovene dialects, forming into Alpine Slovene. It

1593-582: The 16th century, well past the point when Resian lost contact with the Carinthian dialects and leading to possible different reflexes for formerly long and short vowels. Long * ə̄ also turned into * ē , which is unique to Resian in comparison to other Littoral dialects because there it turned into * a . The evolution then continued the same as with other Carinthian dialects, leading to the Carinthian dialect base. Short non-final * ě̀ , * ò , and è evolved differently from their long counterparts, into * é , ó , and é , respectively. Long * ē turned into * ẹ̄ , whereas

1652-503: The 16th century. This dialect (or family of dialects) differs from standard Croatian, since it has been heavily influenced by German and Hungarian. It has properties of all three major dialectal groups in Croatia, since the migrants did not all come from the same area, but the linguistic standard is based on the Chakavian dialect. Kajkavian is mostly spoken in northern and northwest Croatia near

1711-408: The 18th century. The first known instances are two manuscripts called Rez'janskij katichizis I and II , which are thought to have been written after 1700, but the exact date remains unclear because only copies exist, one of them being dated to 1797. The first manuscript must have been written before the second because it contains archaisms not seen in the second manuscript. The second known manuscript

1770-544: The Eastern and Western Slavic language groups (in particular, Central Slovakian dialects). On that basis, Matasović (2008) argues that South Slavic exists strictly as a geographical grouping, not forming a true genetic clade ; in other words, there was never a proto-South Slavic language or a period in which all South Slavic dialects exhibited an exclusive set of extensive phonological, morphological or lexical changes (isoglosses) peculiar to them. Furthermore, Matasović argues, there

1829-516: The Hungarian and Slovene borders—chiefly around the towns of Zagreb , Varaždin, Čakovec, Koprivnica, Petrinja, Delnice and so on. Its reflex of yat is primarily /e/ , rarely diphthongal ije ). This differs from that of the Ekavian accent; many Kajkavian dialects distinguish a closed e —nearly ae (from yat )—and an open e (from the original e ). It lacks several palatals (ć, lj, nj, dž) found in

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1888-587: The Italian linguist Bartoli, this grapheme is characteristic of the Ladin language of the eastern Alps and indicates the native Neolatin population's strong influence on Resian. The standard orthography uses only the letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet plus eleven other letters, which are letters from the ISO basic Latin alphabet with added acute , caron , or diaeresis : San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ) standard version Previously,

1947-513: The Italian schools taught Slovene, not even as a foreign language. Resians thus not only have a hard time understanding Slovene, but they also do not feel themselves part of the Slovene nation because they were left out, and they consider themselves an ethnic group separate from Slovenes. In 2004, 1,014 out of 1,285 (78.9%) inhabitants of Resia signed a petition declaring that they are not Slovenes. The dialect also has its own orthography, which existed and

2006-587: The Shtokavian dialect, and has some loanwords from the nearby Slovene dialects and German (chiefly in towns). Example: Kak je, tak je; tak je navek bilo, kak bu tak bu, a bu vre nekak kak bu! Slovene is mainly spoken in Slovenia . Spoken Slovene has numerous dialects, but there is no consensus on how many; estimates range from 7 to 50. The lowest estimate refers to the language's seven commonly recognized dialect groups, without subdividing any of them. Some of

2065-478: The Slovene morphophonemic alternation between [l] and [w]; for example, [piu̯] , [piu̯a] instead of [piu̯] , [pila] 'drank' (masc., fem.), a phenomenon known as švapanje in Slovene. This Austria -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about Slavic languages is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . South Slavic languages The South Slavic languages are one of three branches of

2124-512: The Torre Valley and Natisone Valley dialects, as well as other dialects in Littoral dialect group, can understand spoken Resian most easily because they have the most shared features and they all have extensive vocabulary from Friulian and Italian. Mutual intelligibility with other South Slavic languages is even more difficult, although Resian has undergone the * sěnȏ > * sě̀no accent shift, and so these words are now accented on

2183-689: The Western dialects in the following ways: Apart from these three main areas there are several smaller, significant differences: Languages to the west of Serbia use the Latin script , whereas those to the east and south use Cyrillic . Serbian officially uses the Cyrillic script, though commonly Latin and Cyrillic are used equally. Most newspapers are written in Cyrillic and most magazines are in Latin; books written by Serbian authors are written in Cyrillic, whereas books translated from foreign authors are usually in Latin, other than languages that already use Cyrillic, most notably Russian. On television, writing as part of

2242-461: The closest standard language is Slovene . The closest (other) Slovene dialect is the Torre Valley dialect , another dialect known for little mutual intelligibility with other dialects. Written Resian can be understood by most Slovenes, partially also due to its similar orthography. Spoken Resian, however, is much more difficult to understand, with the main reason being centralization of vowels, making them more difficult to distinguish. Speakers of

2301-517: The dialect. Literature written in Resian is still being published; for instance, in 2021 Silvana Paletti and Malinka Pila published a Resian translation of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry 's The Little Prince . Notable linguists who have studied the dialect include Jan Niecisław Baudouin de Courtenay , Eric Hamp , Milko Matičetov , and Roberto Dapit . The IETF language tags have registered: Rosen Valley dialect The Rosen Valley dialect ( Slovene : rožansko narečje , rožanščina )

2360-450: The ending - ovi /- evi . Specific to Resian are also special unstressed forms for pronouns in the nominative case—for example, ja 'I'—as well as clitic doubling ; for example, Ja si ti rë́kal tabë́ . 'I told you '. It also has two stressed first-person singular pronouns, jä́ and jä́s , the second being used to be more conceited. Atypical for a Slavic language, Resian also has a definite article (masculine te , feminine ta ;

2419-499: The ethnic (and dialectal) picture of some areas—especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but also in central Croatia and Serbia (Vojvodina in particular). In some areas, it is unclear whether location or ethnicity is the dominant factor in the dialect of the speaker. Because of this the speech patterns of some communities and regions are in a state of flux, and it is difficult to determine which dialects will die out entirely. Further research over

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2478-426: The long infinitive without the final - i . Its special feature is the distinction between animate and inanimate masculine o -stem nouns in more than just the accusative case; the distinction is also present in the dative and locative singular. In the locative, the ending - u can be used for both animate and inanimate, whereas the ending - e̤ is generally reserved for inanimate nouns. In the dative, animate nouns have

2537-567: The nasal vowels remained intact and only lengthened. Long * ə̄ turned into a very open ȩ̄ and short non-final vowels lengthened. Later, Resian followed the same patterns as the Jaun Valley dialect, such as * ie and * uo simplifying into * iə and * uə , * é and ó turned into * ẹ and * ọ , and the * sěnȏ > * sě̀no accent shift, as well as the merger of * ē and * ě̄ . Long nasal vowels also denasalized and * ę̄ merged with * ə̄ , resulting in * ē and * ō . The second stage

2596-655: The next few decades will be necessary to determine the changes made in the dialectical distribution of this language group. The eastern Herzegovinian dialect is the basis of the Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian. Chakavian is spoken in the western, central, and southern parts of Croatia—mainly in Istria , the Kvarner Gulf, Dalmatia and inland Croatia (Gacka and Pokupje, for example). The Chakavian reflex of proto-Slavic yat

2655-643: The ninth century. It is retained as a liturgical language in Slavic Orthodox churches in the form of various local Church Slavonic traditions. The South Slavic languages constitute a dialect continuum . Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin constitute a single dialect within this continuum. The Slavic languages are part of the Balto-Slavic group , which belongs to the Indo-European language family. The South Slavic languages have been considered

2714-507: The north by Mount Sard ( Žard ), therefore limiting possible connections with neighboring dialects and languages, which in turn has led to so many distinct features of Resian dialect. The area was settled by Slovenes from the north, the area of today's Gail Valley dialect . Both areas remained connected until the 14th century, when sparsely populated Slovenes living in the Raccolana and Dogna Valleys started speaking Romance languages. There

2773-441: The only difference in length being tied to stress (stressed vowels are longer than short) and breathiness (breathy vowels are shorter than non-breathy), although standard Resian forms still differentiate between length. From the historical perspective, Resian has undergone only the * sěnȏ > * sě̀no accent shift since Alpine Slovene, making it two accent shifts different from standard Slovene, which has not undergone

2832-418: The only standard Slavic languages to contain definite articles are Bulgarian and Macedonian ) and an indefinite article. It retained the aorist and imperfect until recently, which is unlike (other) Slovene dialects. The aorist is completely unknown to living generations but it was still present in the 19th century, whereas the imperfect is actively used only with a handful of verbs and is now mostly used as

2891-563: The past (and currently, in isolated areas), it was not uncommon for individual villages to have their own words and phrases. However, during the 20th century the local dialects have been influenced by Štokavian standards through mass media and public education and much "local speech" has been lost (primarily in areas with larger populations). With the breakup of Yugoslavia , a rise in national awareness has caused individuals to modify their speech according to newly established standard-language guidelines. The wars have caused large migrations, changing

2950-469: The phoneme /dz/ . Alveolar In contrast to consonants, vowels differ significantly between the four microdialects, especially in accented syllables. They all have thoroughly researched accented vowels; however, Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ) lacks research on unaccented vowels. This is the accent system for San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ): The evolution of Resian into such a distinct dialect happened gradually and in three stages. The first stage lasted until

3009-445: The phoneme /ts/ could optionally also be written with ⟨z⟩ (e.g., Ravanza instead of Ravanca ); however that is found inappropriate today. Despite the standard orthography, many street signs are still not adapted to the new orthography and have misspelled names on them. In addition, the acute accent ( ´ ) can be used to mark stress where it cannot be inferred. The first written texts in Resian were already written in

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3068-531: The same syllable as in Serbo-Croatian , as opposed to most Slovene dialects. There is disagreement between native speakers of the dialect and linguists regarding whether Resian should be considered a separate language or only a dialect of Slovene . Resians were isolated from other Slovenes from the 14th century onward, before standard Slovene was developed, and later they never had the chance to learn it because there were no Slovene schools in that area and none of

3127-486: The seven groups are more heterogeneous than others, and the higher estimates reflect the varying criteria that have been used to differentiate dialects and subdialects. Slovenian dialects can be so different from each other that a speaker of one dialect may have a very difficult time understanding a speaker of another, particularly if their dialects belong to different groups. Some dialects spoken in southern Slovenia transition into Chakavian or Kajkavian Serbo-Croatian , while

3186-502: The transition from eastern dialects to Kajkavian is general, with cases of essentially the same linguistic variety spoken on both sides of the border (this is particularly true for the upper course of the Kupa and Sutla rivers). The table below compares grammatical and phonological innovations. The similarity of Kajkavian and Slovene is apparent. In broad terms, the Eastern dialects of South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian) differ most from

3245-527: Was actively used even before standardization. Resian is also used instead of standard Slovene on bilingual signs and in public announcements. On the other hand, linguists have always treated Resian as a dialect. It does not show any features sufficiently distinct to qualify it as a separate language. To avoid disputes, it is thus often referred to as a Slavic microlanguage . The Resian dialect, in contrast to neighboring dialects, does not have pitch accent and seems to have lost distinctions in vowel length, with

3304-400: Was never a period of cultural or political unity in which Proto-South-Slavic could have existed during which Common South Slavic innovations could have occurred. Several South-Slavic-only lexical and morphological patterns which have been proposed have been postulated to represent common Slavic archaisms , or are shared with some Slovakian or Ukrainian dialects. The South Slavic dialects form

3363-463: Was part of the northwestern dialect because long yat diphthongized into * ie and long * ō diphthongized into * uo . It did not experience denasalization of nasal vowels. After further division, it fell into the category of the northern dialect, the same as other Carinthian dialects and unlike other Littoral dialects. It thus did not experience lengthening of non-final vowels at that time, because vowel lengthening in northern dialects happened only after

3422-428: Was primarily influenced by the Torre Valley dialect. Open * ē and *ō became close-mid * ẹ̄ 2 and * ọ̄ 2 (in contrast to previously existing * ẹ̄ 1 and * ọ̄ 1 ). Short * ə turned into *a, * ĺ turned into * i̯ , * w started turning into * v before front vowels, and * ł turned into * l . This connection also hindered some developments, such as * t → č , the * ženȁ > * žèna shift, and

3481-446: Was suggested to base the standard language on a central microdialect, particularly that of Gniva ( Njïva, Njiva ), but later it was decided to allow four forms of standard Resian, based on the four microdialects of four larger villages: San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ), Gniva ( Njïva, Njiva ), Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ), and Stolvizza ( Solbica ). For other areas of grammar, only the microdialect of San Giorno can be used because it

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