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118-442: There are two versions of the origin story of the first Remington rifle barrel. One holds that the younger Remington wanted to purchase a rifle and lacked the money to buy one, so he made his own. The other states that he forged a barrel from wrought iron to see if he could build a better rifle than he could buy. Both versions have him taking the barrel to a gunsmith to have it rifled . Eliphalet II forged his first rifle barrel as

236-470: A mining engineer , who made the requisite drawings and submitted a patent application. The patent for his machine was issued on 17 July 1830, and in the same year, he and his partners opened the first machine-based clothing manufacturing company in the world to create army uniforms for the French Army . However, the factory was burned down, reportedly by workers fearful of losing their livelihood, following

354-499: A German-born engineer working in England, was awarded the first British patent for a mechanical device to aid the art of sewing, in 1755. His invention consisted of a double pointed needle with an eye at one end. In 1790, the English inventor Thomas Saint invented the first sewing machine design. His machine was meant to be used on leather and canvas material. It is likely that Saint had

472-429: A case for patent infringement in 1854 and was awarded the right to claim royalties from the manufacturers using ideas covered by his patent, including Singer. Singer had seen a rotary sewing machine being repaired in a Boston shop. As an engineer, he thought it was clumsy and decided to design a better one. The machine he devised used a falling shuttle instead of a rotary one; the needle was mounted vertically and included

590-445: A clutch motor. It does not make any sound unless the operator hits the pedal on the machine, but it cannot withstand the same kind of use as a clutch motor. Before sewing machines were invented women spent much of their time maintaining their family's clothing. Middle-class housewives, even with the aid of a hired seamstress, would devote several days of each month to this task. It took an experienced seamstress at least 14 hours to make

708-419: A consistent unit of measure, i.e. metric (mm) or imperial (in). The third method simply reports the angle of the grooves relative to the bore axis, measured in degrees. The latter two methods have the inherent advantage of expressing twist rate as a ratio and give an easy understanding if a twist rate is relatively slow or fast even when comparing bores of differing diameters. In 1879, George Greenhill ,

826-571: A defaulted contract (by John Griffith of Cincinnati ) for 5,000 U.S. Model 1841 Percussion Mississippi rifles. Based on the success of filling these orders, subsequent contracts followed in the 1850s. In 1856 the company expanded to manufacturing agricultural implements. Upon Eliphalet's death in 1861, his son, Philo, took over the firm during the Civil War and diversified the product line to include sewing machines (manufactured from 1870 to 1894) and typewriters (1873), both of which were exhibited at

944-588: A diameter of 0.5 inches (13 mm) and a length of 1.5 inches (38 mm), the Greenhill formula would give a value of 25, which means 1 turn in 25 inches (640 mm). Improved formulas for determining stability and twist rates include the Miller Twist Rule and the McGyro program developed by Bill Davis and Robert McCoy. If an insufficient twist rate is used, the bullet will begin to yaw and then tumble; this

1062-428: A diminished role in household management , and allowed more hours for their own leisure as well as the ability to seek more employment. Industrial use of sewing machines further reduced the burden placed upon housewives, moving clothing production from housewives and seamstresses to large-scale factories . The movement to large-scale factories resulted in a great increase in productivity; fewer workers could produce

1180-447: A dress shirt for a man; a woman's dress took 10 hours; and a pair of summer trousers took nearly three hours. Most people except the very well-off would have only two sets of clothing: a work outfit and a Sunday outfit. Sewing machines reduced the time for making a dress shirt to an hour and 15 minutes; the time to make a dress to an hour; and the time for a pair of summer pants to 38 minutes. This reduced labor resulted in women having

1298-544: A farmer from Raphine in Rockbridge County, Virginia, patented the first chain stitch single-thread sewing machine on June 2, 1857. In partnership with James Willcox, Gibbs became a principal partner in Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Company. Willcox & Gibbs commercial sewing machines are still used in the 21st century, with spares parts available. William Jones started making sewing machines in 1859 and in 1860 formed

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1416-457: A late date of 1854. In 1842, John Greenough patented the first sewing machine in the United States. The British partners Newton and Archibold introduced the eye-pointed needle and the use of two pressing surfaces to keep the pieces of fabric in position, in 1841. The first machine to combine all the disparate elements of the previous half-century of innovation into the modern sewing machine was

1534-505: A lockstitch can be formed anywhere on the material being sewn; it does not need to be near an edge. Overlock, also known as "serging" or "serger stitch", can be formed with two to four threads, one or two needles, and one or two loopers. Overlock sewing machines are usually equipped with knives that trim or create the edge immediately in front of the stitch formation. Household and industrial overlock machines are commonly used for garment seams in knit or stretchy fabrics, for garment seams where

1652-402: A major computer company, as well as manufacturing electric razors . Rifling Rifling is the term for helical grooves machined into the internal surface of a firearms 's barrel for imparting a spin to a projectile to improve its aerodynamic stability and accuracy. It is also the term (as a verb) for creating such grooves. Rifling is measured in twist rate , the distance

1770-434: A man's shirt in about one hour, compared to 14 + 1 ⁄ 2 hours by hand. In 1877, the world's first crochet machine was invented and patented by Joseph M. Merrow , then-president of what had started in the 1840s, as a machine shop to develop specialized machinery for the knitting operations. This crochet machine was the first production overlock sewing machine. The Merrow Machine Company went on to become one of

1888-559: A manufacturer of sewing machines ) to commercialize what was known as the Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer. Remington started production of their first typewriter on March 1, 1873, in Ilion, New York . The Type-Writer introduced the QWERTY , designed by Sholes, and the success of the follow-up Remington No. 2 of 1878 – the first typewriter to include both upper and lower case letters via a shift key – led to

2006-639: A partnership with Thomas Chadwick. As Chadwick & Jones , they manufactured sewing machines at Ashton-under-Lyne , England until 1863. Their machines used designs from Howe and Wilson produced under licence. Thomas Chadwick later joined Bradbury & Co. William Jones opened a factory in Guide Bridge , Manchester in 1869. In 1893 a Jones advertising sheet claimed that this factory was the "Largest Factory in England Exclusively Making First Class Sewing Machines". The firm

2124-469: A pre-drilled barrel was to use a cutter mounted on a square-section rod, accurately twisted into a spiral of the desired pitch, mounted in two fixed square-section holes. As the cutter was advanced through the barrel it twisted at a uniform rate governed by the pitch. The first cut was shallow. The cutter points were gradually expanded as repeated cuts were made. The blades were in slots in a wooden dowel which were gradually packed out with slips of paper until

2242-540: A presser foot to hold the cloth in place. It had a fixed arm to hold the needle and included a basic tension system. This machine combined elements of Thimonnier, Hunt and Howe's machines. Singer was granted an American patent in 1851. The foot treadle used since the Middle Ages, used to convert reciprocating to rotary motion, was adapted to drive the sewing machine, leaving both hands free. When Howe learned of Singer's machine he took him to court, where Howe won and Singer

2360-660: A professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy (RMA) at Woolwich , London, UK developed a rule of thumb for calculating the optimal twist rate for lead-core bullets. This shortcut uses the bullet's length, needing no allowances for weight or nose shape. The eponymous Greenhill Formula , still used today, is: twist = C D 2 L × S G 10.9 {\displaystyle {\text{twist}}={\frac {CD^{2}}{L}}\times {\sqrt {\frac {\mathrm {SG} }{10.9}}}} where C {\displaystyle C}

2478-414: A rifled or smooth bore, a good fit was needed to seal the bore and provide the best possible accuracy from the gun. To ease the force required to load the projectile, these early guns used an undersized ball, and a patch made of cloth, paper, or leather to fill the windage (the gap between the ball and the walls of the bore). The patch acted as a wadding and provided some degree of pressure sealing , kept

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2596-475: A short arc, which was an improvement over Singer and Howe's. However, John Bradshaw had patented a similar device and threatened to sue, so Wilson decided to try a new method. He went into partnership with Nathaniel Wheeler to produce a machine with a rotary hook instead of a shuttle. This was far quieter and smoother than other methods, with the result that the Wheeler & Wilson Company produced more machines in

2714-406: A single dedicated task and are capable of continuous use for long periods; they have larger moving parts and larger motors rated for continuous operation. Parts for different industrial machines, such as motors, sewing feet, and bobbins may be interchangeable, but this is not always so. The motors on industrial machines, as with most of their components, lights, etc., are separate, usually mounted to

2832-414: A single diameter. Rifled bores may be described by the bore diameter (the diameter across the lands or high points in the rifling), or by groove diameter (the diameter across the grooves or low points in the rifling). Differences in naming conventions for cartridges can cause confusion; for example, the projectiles of the .303 British are actually slightly larger in diameter than the projectiles of

2950-417: A tension regulator. If the stitch is too saggy or too tight, the most likely cause is a tension problem. There are mainly two types of sewing machines available: industrial and domestic. Industrial sewing machines are larger, faster, and more varied in their size, cost, appearance, and task. An industrial sewing machine can handle heavy-duty sewing jobs. Industrial machines, unlike domestic machines, perform

3068-417: A throwback to the earliest types of rifling, has become popular, especially in handguns . Polygonal barrels tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of the sharp edges of the land (the grooves are the spaces that are cut out, and the resulting ridges are called lands) reduces erosion of the barrel. Supporters of polygonal rifling also claim higher velocities and greater accuracy. Polygonal rifling

3186-420: A tighter-fitting combination of a closer-to-bore-sized ball and a patch. The accuracy was improved, but still not reliable for precision shooting over long distances. Like the invention of gunpowder itself, the inventor of barrel rifling is not yet definitely known. Straight grooving had been applied to small arms since at least 1480, originally intended as "soot grooves" to collect gunpowder residue . Some of

3304-673: A very high spin rate which can cause projectile jacket ruptures causing high velocity spin stabilized projectiles to disintegrate in flight. Projectiles made out of mono metals cannot practically achieve flight and spin velocities such that they disintegrate in flight due to their spin rate. Smokeless powder can produce muzzle velocities of approximately 1,600 m/s (5,200 ft/s) for spin stabilized projectiles and more advanced propellants used in smoothbore tank guns can produce muzzle velocities of approximately 1,800 m/s (5,900 ft/s). A higher twist than needed can also cause more subtle problems with accuracy: Any inconsistency within

3422-422: A very low twist rate, such as 1 turn in 48 inches (122 cm). Barrels intended for long, small-diameter projectiles, such as the ultra-low-drag 80- grain 0.223 inch bullets (5.2 g, 5.56 mm), use twist rates of 1 turn in 8 inches (20 cm) or faster. Rifling which increases the twist rate from breech to muzzle is called a gain or progressive twist; a rate which decreases down

3540-419: A working model, but there is no surviving evidence of one. He was a skilled cabinet maker and his device included many practical and functional features: an overhanging arm; a feed mechanism (adequate for short lengths of leather); a vertical needle bar; and a looper. Saint created the machine to reduce the amount of hand-stitching on garments, making sewing more reliable and functional. His sewing machine used

3658-607: A young blacksmith in 1816 and finished second place in a local shooting match with it. Despite not winning the match, he proceeded to make barrels to meet the growing demand for flintlock rifles in the Mohawk Valley . With the completion of the Erie Canal , connecting Buffalo with Albany , commerce in the Mohawk Valley expanded remarkably, as did the demand for rifle barrels. To meet the increased demand for rifle barrels, in 1828

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3776-472: Is 150 (use 180 for muzzle velocities higher than 2,800 f/s); D {\displaystyle D} is the bullet's diameter in inches; L {\displaystyle L} is the bullet's length in inches; and S G {\displaystyle \mathrm {SG} } is the bullet's specific gravity (10.9 for lead-core bullets, which cancels out the second half of the equation). The original value of C {\displaystyle C}

3894-416: Is controlled by a cam . As the cam rotates, a fingerlike follower that is connected to the needle bar rides along the cam and tracks its indentations. As the follower moves in and out, the needle bar is moved from side to side. Very old sewing machines lack this hardware and so cannot natively produce a zigzag stitch, but there are often shank-driven attachments available which enable them to do so. Besides

4012-604: Is currently seen on pistols from CZ , Heckler & Koch , Glock , Tanfoglio , and the Kahr Arms ( P series only), as well as the Desert Eagle . For field artillery pieces, the extended range, full bore (ERFB) concept developed in early 1970s by Dennis Hyatt Jenkins and Luis Palacio of Gerald Bull 's Space Research Corporation for the GC-45 howitzer replaces the bourrelet with small nubs, which both tightly fit into lands of

4130-404: Is in fact fairly common. Since a reduction in twist rate is very detrimental to accuracy, gunsmiths who are machining a new barrel from a rifled blank will often measure the twist carefully so they may put the faster rate, no matter how minute the difference is, at the muzzle end. The original firearms were loaded from the muzzle by forcing a ball from the muzzle to the chamber. Whether using

4248-415: Is known as a "safety stitch". A similar machine used for stretch fabrics is called a mock safety . Coverstitch is formed by two or more needles and one or two loopers. Like lockstitch and chainstitch, coverstitch can be formed anywhere on the material being sewn. One looper manipulates a thread below the material being sewn, forming a bottom cover stitch against the needle threads. An additional looper above

4366-415: Is not capable of imparting a spin to a projectile, so a rifled barrel has a non-circular cross-section. Typically the rifled barrel contains one or more grooves that run down its length, giving it a cross-section resembling an internal gear , though it can also take the shape of a polygon , usually with rounded corners. Since the barrel is not circular in cross-section, it cannot be accurately described with

4484-401: Is pushed up through slots in the machine surface, then dragged horizontally past the needle. The dogs are serrated to grip the material, and a "presser foot" is used to keep the material in contact with the dogs. At the end of their horizontal motion, the dogs are lowered again and returned to their original position while the needle makes its next pass through the material. While the needle is in

4602-448: Is removed from the chamber. The specified diameter of the throat may be somewhat greater than groove diameter, and may be enlarged by use if hot powder gas melts the interior barrel surface when the rifle is fired. Freebore is a groove-diameter length of smoothbore barrel without lands forward of the throat. Freebore allows the bullet to transition from static friction to sliding friction and gain linear momentum prior to encountering

4720-502: Is the twist rate expressed in bore diameters; L {\displaystyle L} is the twist length required to complete one full projectile revolution (in mm or in); and D bore {\displaystyle D_{\text{bore}}} is the bore diameter (diameter of the lands, in mm or in). The twist travel L {\displaystyle L} and the bore diameter D bore {\displaystyle D_{\text{bore}}} must be expressed in

4838-457: Is the twist rate. For example, an M4 Carbine with a twist rate of 1 in 7 inches (177.8 mm) and a muzzle velocity of 3,050 feet per second (930 m/s) will give the bullet a spin of 930 m/s / 0.1778 m = 5.2 kHz (314,000 rpm). Excessive rotational speed can exceed the bullet's designed limits and the resulting centrifugal force can cause the bullet to disintegrate radially during flight. A barrel of circular bore cross-section

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4956-411: Is usually seen as "keyholing", where bullets leave elongated holes in the target as they strike at an angle. Once the bullet starts to yaw, any hope of accuracy is lost, as the bullet will begin to veer off in random directions as it precesses . Conversely, too high a rate of twist can also cause problems. The excessive twist can cause accelerated barrel wear, and coupled with high velocities also induce

5074-421: Is usually sized slightly larger than the projectile, so the loaded cartridge can be inserted and removed easily, but the throat should be as close as practical to the groove diameter of the barrel. Upon firing, the projectile expands under the pressure from the chamber, and obturates to fit the throat. The bullet then travels down the throat and engages the rifling, where it is engraved, and begins to spin. Engraving

5192-449: Is very common on industrial two needle machines. Most household machines do not use needle feed. A walking foot replaces the stationary presser foot with one that moves along with whatever other feed mechanisms the machine already has. As the walking foot moves, it shifts the workpiece along with it. It is most useful for sewing heavy materials where needle feed is mechanically inadequate, for spongy or cushioned materials where lifting

5310-446: The .308 Winchester , because the ".303" refers to the bore diameter in inches (bullet is .312), while the ".308" refers to the bullet diameter in inches (7.92 mm and 7.82 mm, respectively). Despite differences in form, the common goal of rifling is to deliver the projectile accurately to the target. In addition to imparting the spin to the bullet, the barrel must hold the projectile securely and concentrically as it travels down

5428-460: The 20 mm M61 Vulcan Gatling gun used in some current fighter jets and the larger 30 mm GAU-8 Avenger Gatling gun used in the A10 Thunderbolt II close air support jet. In these applications it allows lighter construction of the barrels by decreasing chamber pressures through the use of low initial twist rates but ensuring the projectiles have sufficient stability once they leave

5546-663: The 5.56×45mm NATO SS109 ball and L110 tracer bullets, has a 1 in 7-inch (18 cm) or 32 calibers twist. Civilian AR-15 rifles are commonly found with 1 in 12 inches (30 cm) or 54.8 calibers for older rifles and 1 in 9 inches (23 cm) or 41.1 calibers for most newer rifles, although some are made with 1 in 7 inches (18 cm) or 32 calibers twist rates, the same as used for the M16 rifle. Rifles, which generally fire longer, smaller diameter bullets, will in general have higher twist rates than handguns, which fire shorter, larger diameter bullets. There are three methods in use to describe

5664-646: The Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876. On June 23, 1868, a patent was granted to Christopher Sholes , Carlos Glidden , and Samuel W. Soule for a "Type-Writer" which was eventually developed into the Sholes and Glidden typewriter , the first device that allowed an operator to type substantially faster than a person could write by hand. The patent (U.S. 79,265) was sold for $ 12,000 to Densmore and Yost, who agreed with E. Remington and Sons (then famous as

5782-953: The Papal States . It was a critical gun supplier of small arms used by the United States government in World War I (U.S. involvement 1917 to 1918) and World War II (U.S. involvement 1941 to 1945) In 1886, E. Remington and Sons sold its typewriter business to the Standard Typewriter Manufacturing Company, Inc. Included were the rights to use the Remington name. The buyers were William O. Wyckoff , Harry H. Benedict , and Clarence Seamans , all of whom worked for Remington. Standard Typewriter changed its name in 1902 to Remington Typewriter Company. This company merged in 1927 with Rand Kardex Bureau to form Remington Rand , which continued to manufacture office equipment and later became

5900-721: The UK Patent Office , made adjustments to the looper, and built a working machine, currently owned by the Science Museum in London . In 1804, a sewing machine was built by two Englishmen, Thomas Stone and James Henderson, and a machine for embroidering was constructed by John Duncan in Scotland. An Austrian tailor, Josef Madersperger , began developing his first sewing machine in 1807 and presented his first working machine publicly in 1814. Having received financial support from his government,

6018-406: The chain stitch method, in which the machine uses a single thread to make simple stitches in the fabric. A stitching awl would have pierced the material, and a forked-point rod would have carried the thread through the hole, where it would have been hooked underneath and moved to the next stitching place, after which the cycle would be repeated, thereby locking the stitch in place. Saint's machine

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6136-406: The 1850s and 1860s than any other manufacturer. Wilson also invented the four-motion feed mechanism that is still used on every sewing machine today. This had a forward, down, back and up motion, which drew the cloth through in an even and smooth motion. Charles Miller patented the first machine to stitch buttonholes . Throughout the 1850s more and more companies were being formed, each trying to sue

6254-469: The 20th century. Sewing machines continued being made to roughly the same design—with more lavish decoration—until well into the 1900s. The first electric machines were developed by Singer Sewing Co. and introduced in 1889. By the end of the First World War , Singer was offering hand, treadle and electric machines for sale. At first, the electric machines were standard machines with a motor strapped on

6372-455: The Austrian tailor worked on the development of his machine until 1839, when he built a machine imitating the weaving process using the chain stitch. The first practical and widely used sewing machine was invented by Barthélemy Thimonnier , a French tailor, in 1829. His machine sewed straight seams using a chain stitch like Saint's model had, and in 1830, he signed a contract with Auguste Ferrand,

6490-455: The German PzH 2000 . ERFB may be combined with base bleed . A gain-twist or progressive rifling begins with a slow twist rate that gradually increases down the bore, resulting in very little initial change in the projectile's angular momentum during the first few inches of bullet travel after it enters the throat . This enables the bullet to remain essentially undisturbed and trued to

6608-535: The Remingtons moved their forge and foundry from its rural setting to 100 acres (0.40 km) of land they had purchased astride the canal and abutting the Mohawk River near a town then called Morgan's Landing (later Ilion ), New York . The move coincided with the elder Eliphalet's death, and Eliphalet II assumed control of the business. In 1839 Eliphalet was joined by his oldest son, Philo Remington (to make

6726-406: The aerodynamic pressures have a longer arm ("lever") to act on. The slowest twist rates are found in muzzle-loading firearms meant to fire a round ball; these will have twist rates as low as 1 in 72 inches (180 cm), or slightly longer, although for a typical multi-purpose muzzleloader rifle, a twist rate of 1 in 48 inches (120 cm) is very common. The M16A2 rifle, which is designed to fire

6844-418: The ball seated on the charge of black powder , and kept the ball concentric to the bore. In rifled barrels, the patch also provided a means to transfer the spin from the rifling to the bullet, as the patch is engraved rather than the ball. Until the advent of the hollow-based Minié ball , which expands and obturates upon firing to seal the bore and engage the rifling, the patch provided the best means of getting

6962-490: The barrel's twist rate . The general definition of the spin S {\displaystyle S} of an object rotating around a single axis can be written as: S = υ C {\displaystyle S={\frac {\upsilon }{C}}} where υ {\displaystyle \upsilon } is the linear velocity of a point in the rotating object (in units of distance/time) and C {\displaystyle C} refers to

7080-462: The barrel. Guns capable of firing these projectiles have achieved significant increases in range, but this is compensated with a significantly (3–4 times) decreased accuracy, due to which they were not adopted by NATO militaries. Unlike a shell narrower than the gun's bore with a sabot , ERFB shells use the full bore, permitting a larger payload. Examples include the South African G5 and

7198-474: The barrel. It is seldom used in commercially available products, though notably on the Smith & Wesson Model 460 (X-treme Velocity Revolver). Sewing machine A sewing machine is a machine used to sew fabric and materials together with thread . Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in clothing companies. Since

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7316-404: The barrel. This requires that the rifling meet a number of tasks: Rifling may not begin immediately forward of the chamber. There may be an unrifled throat ahead of the chamber so a cartridge may be chambered without pushing the bullet into the rifling. This reduces the force required to load a cartridge into the chamber, and prevents leaving a bullet stuck in the rifling when an unfired cartridge

7434-426: The basic motion of needles, loopers and bobbins , the material being sewn must move so that each cycle of needle motion involves a different part of the material. This motion is known as feed, and sewing machines have almost as many ways of feeding material as they do of forming stitches. For general categories, there are: drop feed, needle feed, walking foot, puller, and manual. Often, multiple types of feed are used on

7552-449: The basic sewing machine. Their action must be synchronized with the needle and feed action built into the machine to avoid damaging the machine. Pullers are also limited to straight seams, or very nearly so. Despite their additional cost and limitations, pulling feeds are very useful when making large heavy items like tents and vehicle covers. A manual feed is used primarily in freehand embroidery, quilting, and shoe repair. With manual feed,

7670-550: The benefits of the patent. Elias Howe, born in Spencer, Massachusetts, created his sewing machine in 1845, using a similar method to Fisher's except that the fabric was held vertically. An important improvement on his machine was to have the needle running away from the point, starting from the eye. After a lengthy stay in England trying to attract interest in his machine, he returned to America to find various people infringing his patent, among them Isaac Merritt Singer. He eventually won

7788-418: The bullet, such as a void that causes an unequal distribution of mass, may be magnified by the spin. Undersized bullets also have problems, as they may not enter the rifling exactly concentric and coaxial to the bore, and excess twist will exacerbate the accuracy problems this causes. A bullet fired from a rifled barrel can spin at over 300,000 rpm (5 kHz ), depending on the bullet's muzzle velocity and

7906-477: The business "E. Remington & Son"); in 1845, his second son, Samuel, also joined the company, afterward called "E. Remington & Sons". Remington's third son, Eliphalet III, would later join the company as well. During this period, the Remingtons specialized almost exclusively in manufacturing rifle barrels. These barrels, marked with the distinctive "REMINGTON" stamp near their breeches , were recognized for their quality and reasonable price. Many, if not most, of

8024-404: The case mouth. After engaging the rifling at the throat, the bullet is progressively subjected to accelerated angular momentum as it is propelled down the barrel. The theoretical advantage is that by gradually increasing the spin rate, torque is imparted along a much longer bore length, allowing thermomechanical stress to be spread over a larger area rather than being focused predominantly at

8142-456: The circumference of the circle that this measuring point performs around the axis of rotation. A bullet that matches the rifling of the firing barrel will exit that barrel with a spin: S = υ 0 L {\displaystyle S={\frac {\upsilon _{0}}{L}}} where υ 0 {\displaystyle \upsilon _{0}} is the muzzle velocity and L {\displaystyle L}

8260-565: The company's workforce. In 1848, the company purchased gun-making machinery from the Ames Manufacturing Company of Chicopee, Massachusetts and took over a contract for Jenks breechloading percussion carbines for the U.S. Navy . Remington supplied the U.S. Navy with its first breech-loading rifle. Remington supplied the U.S. Army with rifles in the Mexican–American War (1846 to 1848). Shortly after, Remington took over

8378-456: The device built by English inventor John Fisher in 1844, a little earlier than the very similar machines built by Isaac Merritt Singer in 1851, and the lesser known Elias Howe , in 1845. However, due to the botched filing of Fisher's patent at the Patent Office, he did not receive due recognition for the modern sewing machine in the legal disputations of priority with Singer, and Singer reaped

8496-432: The earliest recorded European attempts of spiral-grooved musket barrels were of Gaspard Kollner , a gunsmith of Vienna in 1498 and Augustus Kotter of Nuremberg in 1520. Some scholars allege that Kollner's works at the end of the 15th century only used straight grooves, and it was not until he received help from Kotter that a working spiral-grooved firearm was made. There may have been attempts even earlier than this, as

8614-412: The fabric easily glides in and out of the machine. Early sewing machines were powered by either constantly turning a flywheel handle or with a foot-operated treadle mechanism. Electrically-powered machines were later introduced. Industrial sewing machines, by contrast to domestic machines, are larger, faster, and more varied in their size, cost , appearance, and tasks. Charles Fredrick Wiesenthal ,

8732-444: The fabric is light enough that the seam does not need to be pressed open, and for protecting edges against raveling. Machines using two to four threads are most common, and frequently one machine can be configured for several varieties of overlock stitch. Overlock machines with five or more threads usually make both a chainstitch with one needle and one looper, and an overlock stitch with the remaining needles and loopers. This combination

8850-400: The feed dogs. Sewing machines use special needles tailored to their needs and to the character of the material being sewn. Modern sewing machines may be equipped with a needle guard. Needle guards are a safety measure that are used to help avoid injuries. Tension in a sewing machine refers to the pull of the thread between the needle and the bobbin. Sewing machines have tension discs and

8968-501: The foot out of contact with the material helps in the feeding action, and for sewing many layers together where a drop feed will cause the lower layers to shift out of position with the upper layers. Some factory machines and a few household machines are set up with an auxiliary puller feed , which grips the material being sewn (usually from behind the needles) and pulls it with a force and reliability usually not possible with other types of feed. Puller feeds are seldom built directly into

9086-427: The high cost, great difficulty of precision manufacturing, and the need to load readily and speedily from the muzzle, musket balls were generally a loose fit in the barrels. Consequently, on firing the balls would often bounce off the sides of the barrel when fired and the final destination after leaving the muzzle was less predictable. This was countered when accuracy was more important, for example when hunting, by using

9204-399: The increased accuracy. Rifled firearms were not popular with military users since they were difficult to clean, and loading projectiles presented numerous challenges. If the bullet was of sufficient diameter to take up the rifling, a large mallet was required to force it down the bore. If, on the other hand, it was of reduced diameter to assist in its insertion, the bullet would not fully engage

9322-570: The independent gunsmiths in the Mohawk Valley purchased completed (but not rifled) barrels from Remington and assembled them into firearms custom ordered by their customers. As demand increased, the Remingtons added other parts to their inventory, first percussion locks made in Birmingham , England but marked with their stamp "REMINGTON", and later sets of brass gun furniture, including trigger guards , butt plates, and patch boxes. After 1846, martial longarm and then revolver production dominated

9440-426: The invention of the first sewing machine, generally considered to have been the work of Englishman Thomas Saint in 1790, the sewing machine has greatly improved the efficiency and productivity of the clothing industry . Home sewing machines are designed for one person to sew individual items while using a single stitch type at a time. In a modern sewing machine, the process of stitching has been automated, so that

9558-403: The issuing of the patent. A model of the machine is exhibited in London at the Science Museum . The machine is made of wood and uses a barbed needle which passes downward through the cloth to grab the thread and pull it up to form a loop to be locked by the next loop. The first American lockstitch sewing machine was invented by Walter Hunt in 1832. His machine used a needle with the eye and

9676-595: The largest American manufacturers of overlock sewing machines and remains in the 21st century as the last American over-lock sewing machine manufacturer. In 1885 Singer patented the Singer Vibrating Shuttle sewing machine, which used Allen B. Wilson's idea for a vibrating shuttle and was a better lockstitcher than the oscillating shuttles of the time. Millions of the machines, perhaps the world's first really practical sewing machine for domestic use, were produced until finally superseded by rotary shuttle machines in

9794-514: The length of a barrel is undesirable because it cannot reliably stabilize the projectile as it travels down the bore. An extremely long projectile, such as a flechette , requires impractically high twist rates to stabilize; it is often stabilized aerodynamically instead. An aerodynamically stabilized projectile can be fired from a smoothbore barrel without a reduction in accuracy. Muskets are smoothbore , large caliber weapons using ball-shaped ammunition fired at relatively low velocity. Due to

9912-478: The lifespan and increased complexity of the electronic parts, electronic sewing machines do not last as long as mechanical sewing machines, which can last over 100 years. Sewing machines can make a great variety of plain or patterned stitches. Ignoring strictly decorative aspects, over three dozen distinct stitch formations are formally recognized by the ISO 4915:1991 standard, involving one to seven separate threads to form

10030-582: The main inspiration of rifled firearms came from archers and crossbowmen who realized that their projectiles flew far faster and more accurately when they imparted rotation through twisted fletchings. Though true rifling dates from the 16th century, it had to be engraved by hand and consequently did not become commonplace until the mid-19th century. Due to the laborious and expensive manufacturing process involved, early rifled firearms were primarily used by wealthy recreational hunters, who did not need to fire their weapons many times in rapid succession and appreciated

10148-431: The material can form a top cover stitch simultaneously. The needle threads form parallel rows, while the looper threads cross back and forth all the needle rows. Coverstitch is so-called because the grid of crossing needle and looper threads covers raw seam edges, much as the overlock stitch does. It is widely used in garment construction, particularly for attaching trims and flat seaming where the raw edges can be finished in

10266-423: The material while the needle is in the material. In fact, the needle may be the primary feeding force. Some implementations of needle feed rock the axis of needle motion back and forth, while other implementations keep the axis vertical while moving it forward and back. In both cases, there is no feed action while the needle is out of the material. Needle feed is often used in conjunction with a modified drop feed, and

10384-581: The material, there is no feed action. Almost all household machines and the majority of industrial machines use drop feed. Differential feed is a variation of drop feed with two independent sets of dogs, one before and one after the needle. By changing their relative motions, these sets of dogs can be used to stretch or compress the material in the vicinity of the needle. This is extremely useful when sewing stretchy material, and overlock machines (heavily used for such materials) frequently have differential feed. A needle feed, used only in industrial machines, moves

10502-603: The name was formally changed to the Remington Arms Company. Remington, in addition, was one of the most successful gun manufacturers in the world arms trade between 1867 and 1900, specifically through the export of the Remington Rolling Block action rifle. This single-shot, large-caliber black-powder cartridge rifle was exported in the millions all over the world, including shipments to France, Egypt , Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Belgium, Argentina , Mexico, and

10620-585: The others for patent infringement. This triggered a patent thicket known as the Sewing Machine War. In 1856, the Sewing Machine Combination was formed, consisting of Singer, Howe, Wheeler, Wilson, and Grover and Baker. These four companies pooled their patents, with the result that all other manufacturers had to obtain a license for $ 15 per machine. This lasted until 1877 when the last patent expired. James Edward Allen Gibbs (1829–1902),

10738-481: The point on the same end carrying the upper thread, and a falling shuttle carrying the lower thread. The curved needle moved through the fabric horizontally, leaving the loop as it withdrew. The shuttle passed through the loop, interlocking the thread. The feed was unreliable, requiring the machine to be stopped frequently and reset up. Hunt eventually lost interest in his machine and sold individual machines without bothering to patent his invention, and only patenting it at

10856-611: The popularity of the QWERTY layout. E. Remington & Sons supplied a large proportion of the small arms used by the United States government in the Civil War (1861 to 1865). On March 7, 1888, ownership of E. Remington & Sons left possession of the Remington family and was sold to new owners Hartley and Graham of New York, New York , and the Winchester Repeating Arms Company of New Haven, Connecticut , at which time

10974-411: The projectile requires a significant amount of force, and in some firearms there is a significant amount of freebore, which helps keep chamber pressures low by allowing the propellant gases to expand before being required to engrave the projectile. Minimizing freebore improves accuracy by decreasing the chance that a projectile will distort before entering the rifling. When the projectile is swaged into

11092-407: The projectile to engage the rifling. In breech-loading firearms , the task of seating the projectile into the rifling is handled by the throat of the chamber . Next is the freebore , which is the portion of the throat down which the projectile travels before the rifling starts. The last section of the throat is the throat angle , where the throat transitions into the rifled barrel. The throat

11210-487: The required depth was obtained. The process was finished off by casting a slug of molten lead into the barrel, withdrawing it and using it with a paste of emery and oil to smooth the bore. Most rifling is created by either: The grooves are the spaces that are cut out, and the resulting ridges are called lands . These lands and grooves can vary in number, depth, shape, direction of twist (right or left), and twist rate. The spin imparted by rifling significantly improves

11328-413: The resistance of increasing rotational momentum. Freebore may allow more effective use of propellants by reducing the initial pressure peak during the minimum volume phase of internal ballistics before the bullet starts moving down the barrel. Barrels with freebore length exceeding the rifled length have been known by a variety of trade names including paradox . An early method of introducing rifling to

11446-577: The rifling and accuracy was reduced. The first practical military weapons using rifling with black powder were breech loaders such as the Queen Anne pistol . For best performance, the barrel should have a twist rate sufficient to spin stabilize any bullet that it would reasonably be expected to fire, but not significantly more. Large diameter bullets provide more stability, as the larger radius provides more gyroscopic inertia , while long bullets are harder to stabilize, as they tend to be very backheavy and

11564-472: The rifling takes to complete one full revolution, expressed as a ratio with 1 as its base (e.g., 1:10 inches (25.4 cm)). A shorter distance/lower ratio indicates a faster twist, generating a higher spin rate (and greater projectile stability). The combination of length, weight, and shape of a projectile determines the twist rate needed to gyroscopically stabilize it: barrels intended for short, large-diameter projectiles such as spherical lead balls require

11682-512: The rifling, it takes on a mirror image of the rifling, as the lands push into the projectile in a process called engraving . Engraving takes on not only the major features of the bore, such as the lands and grooves, but also minor features, like scratches and tool marks. The relationship between the bore characteristics and the engraving on the projectile are often used in forensic ballistics . The grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have fairly sharp edges. More recently, polygonal rifling ,

11800-491: The same amount of clothing, reducing clothing prices significantly. As supply increased, prices also dropped. While many middle-class women enjoyed increased leisure during the Victorian era, working-class women faced intensifying demands, particularly in the clothing industry. The invention of the sewing machine, which revolutionized garment production, brought longer working hours for seamstresses, especially during peak times of

11918-402: The same machine. Besides these general categories, there are also uncommon feed mechanisms used in specific applications like edge joining fur, making seams on caps, and blind stitching. The drop feed mechanism is used by almost all household machines and involves a mechanism below the sewing surface of the machine. When the needle is withdrawn from the material being sewn, a set of " feed dogs "

12036-400: The same operation as forming the seam. A zigzag stitch is a variant geometry of the lockstitch. It is a back-and-forth stitch used where a straight stitch will not suffice, such as in preventing raveling of a fabric, in stitching stretchable fabrics, and in temporarily joining two work pieces edge-to-edge. When creating a zigzag stitch, the back-and-forth motion of the sewing machine's needle

12154-401: The same seam. Lockstitch is the familiar stitch performed by most household sewing machines and most industrial "single needle" sewing machines, using two threads, one passed through a needle and one coming from a bobbin or shuttle. Each thread stays on its own side of the material while being sewn, interlacing with the other thread at each needle hole by means of a bobbin driver . As a result,

12272-632: The side, but as more homes gained power, they became more popular, and the motor was gradually introduced into the casing. Sewing machines were strictly mechanical, using gears, shafts, levers, and so on, until the 1970s when electronic machines were introduced to the market. Electronic sewing machines incorporate components such as circuit boards, computer chips, and additional motors for independent control of machine functions. These electronic components enabled new features such as automating thread cutters, needle positioning, and back-tacking, as well as digitized stitch patterns and stitch combinations. Because of

12390-404: The stability of the projectile, improving both range and accuracy. Typically rifling is a constant rate down the barrel, usually measured by the length of travel required to produce a single turn. Occasionally firearms are encountered with a gain twist , where the rate of spin increases from chamber to muzzle. While intentional gain twists are rare, due to manufacturing variance, a slight gain twist

12508-409: The stitch length and direction is controlled entirely by the motion of the material being sewn. Frequently some form of hoop or stabilizing material is used with fabric to keep the material under proper tension and aid in moving it around. Most household machines can be set for manual feed by disengaging the drop feed dogs. Most industrial machines can not be used for manual feed without actually removing

12626-399: The stitch. Plain stitches fall into four general categories: chainstitch , lockstitch , overlock , and coverstitch . Chain stitch was used by early sewing machines and has two major drawbacks: A better stitch was found in the lockstitch. The chain stitch is still used today in clothing manufacture, though due to its major drawbacks, it is generally paired with an overlock stitch along

12744-480: The throat, which typically wears out much faster than other parts of the barrel. Gain-twist rifling was used prior to and during the American Civil War (1861–65). Colt Army and Navy revolvers both employed gain-twist rifling. Gain-twist rifling, however, is more difficult to produce than uniform rifling, and therefore is more expensive. The military has used gain-twist rifling in a variety of weapons such as

12862-709: The twist rate: The, traditionally speaking, most common method expresses the twist rate in terms of the 'travel' (length) required to complete one full projectile revolution in the rifled barrel. This method does not give an easy or straightforward understanding of whether a twist rate is relatively slow or fast when bores of different diameters are compared. The second method describes the 'rifled travel' required to complete one full projectile revolution in calibers or bore diameters: twist = L D bore , {\displaystyle {\text{twist}}={\frac {L}{D_{\text{bore}}}},} where twist {\displaystyle {\text{twist}}}

12980-524: The underside of the table. Domestic machines have their OEM motors mounted inside the machine. There are two different types of motor available for industrial machines: a servo motor (which uses less electricity and is silent when not in use), and the more traditional clutch motor (which is always spinning, even when not in use). A clutch motor is always running and making noises when it is connected to electricity. The constant operation ensures consistency and speed. The servo motor uses less electricity than

13098-453: The year when wealthy customers placed orders in preparation for "the Season”—the high point of the fashion season. Many women worked a minimum of eighteen hours, and sometimes up to twenty hours a day, particularly those employed by high-end London retailers. Despite the technological advancements, the industry’s seasonality left women with low wages during peak periods and no income for much of

13216-596: The year. Faced with such economic instability, some women turned to prostitution to survive. This moral and economic tension extended to broader societal concerns. A challenge working-class women in the textile industry often faced was the notion that factory work could lead to moral decline, fueling fears of widespread prostitution. This anxiety was reflected in literature of the time, with several novels depicting female characters who fell into prostitution after entering factory work. Often, these narratives attributed their downfall to spending wages on ‘finery’ or clothing, which

13334-434: Was 150, which yields a twist rate in inches per turn, when given the diameter D {\displaystyle D} and the length L {\displaystyle L} of the bullet in inches. This works to velocities of about 840 m/s (2800 ft/s); above those velocities, a C {\displaystyle C} of 180 should be used. For instance, with a velocity of 600 m/s (2000 ft/s),

13452-449: Was designed to aid in the manufacturing of various leather goods, including saddles and bridles , but it was also capable of working with canvas, and was used for sewing ship sails . Although his machine was very advanced for the era, the concept would need steady improvement over the coming decades before it was practical enough to enter into wide use. In 1874, a sewing machine manufacturer, William Newton Wilson, found Saint's drawings in

13570-424: Was forced to pay a lump sum for all machines already produced. Singer then took out a license under Howe's patent and paid him US$ 1.15 per machine before entering into a joint partnership with a lawyer named Edward Clark. They created the first hire-purchase arrangement to allow people to purchase their machines through payments over time. Meanwhile, Allen B. Wilson developed a shuttle that reciprocated in

13688-817: Was renamed as the Jones Sewing Machine Co. Ltd and was later acquired by Brother Industries of Japan, in 1968. Clothing manufacturers were the first sewing machine customers, and used them to produce the first ready-to-wear clothing and shoes. In the 1860s consumers began purchasing them, and the machines—ranging in price from £6 to £15 in Britain depending on features—became very common in middle-class homes. Owners were much more likely to spend free time with their machines to make and mend clothing for their families than to visit friends, and women's magazines and household guides such as Mrs Beeton's offered dress patterns and instructions. A sewing machine could produce

13806-656: Was seen as fostering vanity and eventual vice. Elizabeth Gaskell’s Mary Barton (1848), set in Manchester, exemplifies these themes. From the 1840s to the 1920s, such questions about the relationship between the clothing women wore and the clothing they made generated moral panics. Works like Benjamin Disraeli's Sybil (1845), Theodore Dreiser's Sister Carrie (1900), Emile Zola's Au Bonheur des Dames (1883), and Honoré de Balzac's Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes (1847) similarly explored these themes. Adding to these discussions

13924-419: Was the influence of William Acton, a Parisian-trained British doctor who argued that one of the primary causes of prostitution was women’s excessive love of finery, or clothing. Acton suggested that this "vanity" drove women into prostitution, although historians debate whether he meant that women engaged in prostitution to buy fashionable clothing or that admiration for the attire worn by prostitutes led them into

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