An economist is a professional and practitioner in the social science discipline of economics .
123-592: John Fredrik Reinfeldt (pronounced [ˈfrěːdrɪk ˈrâjnːfɛlt] ; born 4 August 1965) is a Swedish economist , lecturer , former Prime Minister of Sweden from 2006 to 2014 and chairman of the liberal conservative Moderate Party from 2003 to 2015. He was the last rotating President of the European Council in 2009. He is chairman of the Swedish Football Association since 25 March 2023. A native of Stockholm County , Reinfeldt joined
246-457: A Divine plan . Compare this with servant leadership . For a more general view on leadership in politics , compare the concept of the statesperson . Anecdotal and incidental observations aside, the serious discipline of theorising leadership began in the 19th century. The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from Plato 's Republic to Plutarch's Lives have explored
369-550: A minority government , owing to the rise of Sweden Democrats ; he remained in power as the first centre-right Prime Minister since the Swedish-Norwegian Union to be re-elected.. His premiership was characterised by " Arbetslinjen " ( English : Working line) , a focus on getting more people into the workforce , and by management of the 2007–2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession , which resulted in one of
492-626: A ranger (Swedish: lapplandsjägare ) at Lapland Ranger Regiment and finished first in his class as a cadet in Umeå . It was during this time that he became interested in politics, as a representative for his regiment in the congress of conscripts in the Swedish military (Swedish: värnpliktsriksdagen ). He graduated from Stockholm University School of Business with a degree in Business and Economics (Swedish: civilekonomexamen ) in 1990. Reinfeldt joined
615-564: A terraced house in Bromsten in northwestern Stockholm. The Reinfeldt family was living in Bromsten when Fredrik's younger brothers, Magnus and Henrik, were born in 1969 and 1973. In 1976, the family moved into a single-family home in Täby in northeastern Stockholm County. His mother Birgitta was a leadership and management consultant , and some of her professional skills might have inspired and impressed
738-493: A bond with the mother party, eventually taking over the youth league in 1987. In 1988 he became a secretary (Swedish: borgarrådssekreterare ) in the Stockholm Municipality Council. He was active in student politics while studying at Stockholm University , eventually becoming chairman of the student party " Borgerliga Studenter – Opposition '68 " between 1988 and 1989. He became chairman of
861-409: A business setting. Assume praise is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus)
984-627: A drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that people who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait—situational approaches (see alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation of
1107-419: A fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them. LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between
1230-485: A greater need to seek consensus on matters of substance with the opposition parties. The second term compromised a slow recovery from the Great Recession and consolidation of policies from the first term. The political debate came from 2013 to be highly dominated by issues where the Government came in a defense mode, in particular for the poor performance of Swedish pupils in the international study of school performance,
1353-403: A group vision. The transactional leader is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is not up to
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#17328549444141476-658: A leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's work. Various leadership behaviors facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure . Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for
1599-715: A more centrist one. On the other hand, he is thought to have influenced Cameron, since Reinfeldt was elected party leader in 2003—two years before Cameron took control of the British Conservative Party in 2005. Reinfeldt has also been described as a communitarian . In a study by Sifo , a Swedish polling institute, Reinfeldt was the "most admired man in Sweden" in 2006. Reinfeldt's approval rating reached its highest measured point yet in December 2006, at 57% approval in an Aftonbladet /Sifo poll. Approval ratings for Reinfeldt as
1722-517: A new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others, and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of servant leadership and authentic leadership . Integrated psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's Three Levels of Leadership model (2011). Scouller argued that older theories offered only limited assistance in developing
1845-404: A new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of mindfulness meditation . Bernard Bass and colleagues developed the idea of two different types of leadership: transactional which involves exchange of labor for rewards, and transformational which is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and providing
1968-552: A new paradigm with which to characterize elected politicians and job-granting employers—thus the development and theorizing of the idea of "leadership". The functional relationship between leaders and followers may remain, but acceptable (perhaps euphemistic) terminology has changed. Starting in the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. One response to this denial of élitism came with Leninism — Lenin (1870–1924) demanded an élite group of disciplined cadres to act as
2091-421: A normative decision model in which leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation. This approach supported the idea that a manager could rely on different group decision making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory. The path-goal theory of leadership
2214-484: A person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common and ethical task ". In other words, leadership is an influential power -relationship in which the power of one party (the "leader") promotes movement/change in others (the "followers"). Some have challenged the more traditional managerial views of leadership (which portray leadership as something possessed or owned by one individual due to their role or authority ), and instead advocate
2337-801: A person remained overall good but fluctuating through most of the period 2006–2010, but did not always seem to translate into support for the cabinet. Economist The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy . Within this field there are many sub-fields, ranging from the broad philosophical theories to the focused study of minutiae within specific markets , macroeconomic analysis, microeconomic analysis or financial statement analysis , involving analytical methods and tools such as econometrics , statistics , economics computational models , financial economics , regulatory impact analysis and mathematical economics . Economists work in many fields including academia, government and in
2460-724: A person's ability to lead effectively. He pointed out, for example, that: Scouller's model aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The three levels in his model are public, private, and personal leadership: Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one's leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers, and dissolving one's limiting beliefs and habits. This enables behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to one's core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders' development, he introduced
2583-627: A poll conducted by the newspaper Svenska Dagbladet in April 2004, Reinfeldt like a large majority of his party favoured Bush over Kerry. Despite this, he has compared his government's actions and policies to those of Bill Clinton 's administration, and supported Barack Obama in the 2008 United States presidential election . Reinfeldt visited Washington, D.C., on 15 May 2007, meeting with President Bush. His trip also included meetings with others, including United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger . This
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#17328549444142706-492: A study which investigated observable behaviors portrayed by effective leaders. They identified particular behaviors that were reflective of leadership effectiveness. They narrowed their findings to two dimensions. The first dimension, "initiating structure", described how a leader clearly and accurately communicates with the followers, defines goals, and determines how tasks are performed. These are considered "task oriented" behaviors. The second dimension, "consideration", indicates
2829-509: A subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards. The Integrated Psychological Theory of leadership attempts to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, introducing
2952-427: A variety of major national and international firms in the financial and commercial sectors, and in manufacturing, retailing and IT, as well as in the public sector – for example, in the health and education sectors, or in government and politics . Some graduates go on to undertake postgraduate studies , either in economics, research, teacher training or further qualifications in specialist areas. Unlike most nations,
3075-453: A variety of situations and tasks. Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses , in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed
3198-524: Is a formalized role. Professionals here are employed (or engaged as consultants ) to conduct research, prepare reports, or formulate plans and strategies to address economic problems. Here, as outlined, the analyst provides forecasts, analysis and advice, based upon observed trends and economic principles; this entails also collecting and processing economic and statistical data using econometric methods and statistical techniques. In contrast to regulated professions such as engineering, law or medicine, there
3321-465: Is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time. Positive reinforcement is a successful technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity. Empirical research covering
3444-560: Is defined as the ability of an individual, group, or organization to " lead ", influence, or guide other individuals, teams , or organizations . "Leadership" is a contested term. Specialist literature debates various viewpoints on the concept, sometimes contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership, and also (within the West) North American versus European approaches. Some U.S. academic environments define leadership as "a process of social influence in which
3567-629: Is his first visit to the United States since becoming Prime Minister in 2006. Bush and Reinfeldt mostly discussed climate change and free trade , focusing on the Doha Round . He visited President Barack Obama at first the White House and then in the Metropolitan Museum of Art on 23 September 2009. Reinfeldt was President of the European Council from 1 July to 1 December 2009. The signing of
3690-496: Is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders. Emotional intelligence—the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others—contributes to effective leadership within organizations. The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme ) sees leadership as an impression formed through the communication of information by
3813-552: Is not a legally required educational requirement or license for economists. In academia, most economists have a Ph.D. degree in Economics . In the U.S. Government, on the other hand, a person can be hired as an economist provided that they have a degree that included or was supplemented by 21 semester hours in economics and three hours in statistics, accounting, or calculus. In fact, a professional working inside of one of many fields of economics or having an academic degree in this subject
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3936-401: Is often considered to be an economist; see Bachelor of Economics and Master of Economics . Economics graduates are employed in varying degrees depending on the regional economic scenario and labour market conditions at the time for a given country. Apart from the specific understanding of the subject, employers value the skills of numeracy and analysis, the ability to communicate and
4059-459: The 2000 United States presidential election , Reinfeldt visited the United States to support the campaign of George W. Bush . Prior to the 2004 United States presidential election , Reinfeldt again expressed his support for Bush. In an interview with the newspaper Stockholm City on 8 March 2004, Reinfeldt said that he preferred Bush over the Democratic Party contender John Kerry , and in
4182-638: The Centre Party , the Liberal People's Party and the Christian Democrats . Reinfeldt is said to have been instrumental in uniting the four parties, which previously were known for being notoriously divided, in order to present a powerful alternative to the Social Democrats. The parties presented a joint election manifesto for the alliance. During the run-up to the 2006 general election, Reinfeldt
4305-461: The Fiedler contingency model , the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a contingency theory , as it depends on the circumstances, and as a transactional leadership theory , as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and
4428-580: The Moderate Party . He stepped down from the office of Prime Minister on 3 October 2014, being succeeded by Stefan Löfven . He resigned from the Riksdag on 31 December 2014 and stepped down as party leader on 10 January 2015, being succeeded by Anna Kinberg Batra . On 19 January 2015, Reinfeldt announced that he had formed his own business Fredrik Reinfeldt AB where he will serve as an advisor and lecturer. He will also continue to promote his "job line", which
4551-634: The Moderate Youth League in 1983. By 1992 he rose to the rank of chairman, a position he held until 1995. He served as Member of Parliament from 1991 to 2014, representing his home constituency. Reinfeldt was elected party leader on 25 October 2003, succeeding Bo Lundgren . Under his leadership, the Moderate Party has transformed its policies and oriented itself closer to the political centre, branding itself "The New Moderates" ( Swedish : Nya moderaterna ). In 2010, under Reinfeldt's leadership,
4674-665: The Moderate Youth League —the youth wing of the Swedish Moderate Party —in 1983 at the age of 18. As a member of the Moderate Youth League in Täby, he challenged the leaders of the local league, who preferred to use the premises as a place to drink beer and wine rather than engage in discussions about politics. Reinfeldt, who is said to dislike hard liquor and to consume wine and beer in moderate amounts, started "Conservative Youth" (Swedish: Konservativ ungdom ) and formed
4797-555: The Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent . In the autocratic / paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman pater familias . Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may object to such models as patriarchal and posit against them "emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies ". Comparable to
4920-527: The Programme for International Student Assessment , and profits gained in private welfare , especially after the economic collapse that had preceded the closure of school group JB Education AB and questions of how key people in the Government, including himself, acted in the N.V. Nuon Energy affair. Reinfeldt had during his second term, in contrast to his first term, no major international engagement. Contacts with other politicians, however, remained good, which
5043-663: The Treaty of Lisbon was Reinfeldt's role as President of the Council, which also occurred on 13 December 2009. Reinfeldt was also responsible in this role to put EU's efforts to get into a binding agreement at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in 2009 but this did not succeed. After defeat in 2014 , Reinfeldt announced he would step down as both Prime Minister of Sweden and as party leader of
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5166-862: The UK are the more than 3500 members of the Government Economic Service . Analysis of destination surveys for economics graduates from a number of selected top schools of economics in the United Kingdom (ranging from Newcastle University to the London School of Economics ), shows nearly 80 percent in employment six months after graduation – with a wide range of roles and employers, including regional, national and international organisations, across many sectors. Some current well-known economists include: [REDACTED] The dictionary definition of economist at Wiktionary Leadership Leadership ,
5289-565: The University of Oxford ) that further developed such characteristics. International networks of such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help "render war impossible". This vision of leadership underlay the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships , which have helped to shape notions of leadership since their creation in 1903. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a series of qualitative reviews prompted researchers to take
5412-489: The vanguard of a socialist revolution, which was to bring into existence the dictatorship of the proletariat . Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized stewardship of divinely-provided resources—human and material—and their deployment in accordance with
5535-466: The 19th century, the concept of leadership had less relevance than today—society expected and obtained traditional deference and obedience to lords, kings, master-craftsmen, and slave-masters. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as 1821, when the term referred to the position or office of a designated leader. The abstract notion of "leadership" as embodying
5658-527: The Alliance for Sweden were reduced to a minority government, but also becoming the first centre-right government to be re-elected since before World War II . The Moderate Party received 30.06 percent of the votes, which was the highest election result in over one hundred years. The Alliance for Sweden received a plurality of votes, but not full majority in Parliament. But because of the fragmented opposition, after
5781-547: The Czech Republic. His slogan was "taking on the challenge". Reinfeldt immediately requested the European Union to do more to combat climate change . Days earlier, he had been interviewed by Reuters and said he spoke of his worry about increased European public debt. He spoke of his wish for Turkey to join the European Union . He also spoke of his other views, such as his hope that a second term would be possible quickly for
5904-508: The Fiedler contingency model, the Vroom-Yetton decision model, and the path-goal theory. The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency . This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorability (later called situational control ). The theory defines two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish
6027-411: The Moderate Party got its highest share of the vote since the introduction of universal suffrage in 1921. Following the 2006 general election , Reinfeldt was elected Prime Minister on 6 October. Along with the three other political parties in the centre-right Alliance for Sweden , Reinfeldt presided over a coalition government with the support of a narrow majority in parliament. At the age of 41, he
6150-406: The Moderate Party leadership, who believed that Reinfeldt's criticisms had gone too far. On 14 February 1995 Reinfeldt was called to a meeting of the Moderate Party's Riksdag group, which took place in the former second chamber (Swedish: andrakammarsalen ) of the Swedish parliament building , a meeting where Bildt apparently scolded him for hours. After this, Reinfeldt toned down his criticism, but
6273-418: The Moderate Party. In the general election of 2002 the Moderate Party received 15.3 percent of the votes—its lowest share of the vote in a general election since 1973. Following the loss, Lundgren was forced to resign his position as leader of the Moderate Party. After the 2002 election Reinfeldt was elected as leader of the Moderate Party parliamentary group, spokesman for economic policy and vice chairman of
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#17328549444146396-540: The Moderate Youth League's Stockholm branch in 1990, and the following year was elected a member of the Riksdag (the Swedish Parliament). In the Swedish general election of 1991 the Moderate Party and its allies had considerable success, leading to the formation of a centre-right coalition government under Moderate Party leader and Prime Minister Carl Bildt . The 1991 government was the first centre-right government in Sweden since 1982. From 1992 to 1995 Reinfeldt
6519-639: The President of the European Commission and his desire that the European Union should not sanction Iran immediately following its election protests . In the 2010 general election , the Moderate Party increased its share of the vote to 30.06 percent. The Alliance got a plurality of votes cast, but with 173 seats no absolute majority in parliament. With the opposition divided mainly by the Sweden Democrats , Reinfeldt could remain in government, but with
6642-448: The Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety. Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline... Reliance on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on
6765-468: The Social Democratic Party have become harder to discern. In a series of radio and television debates, the then-Social Democrat leader and Prime Minister Göran Persson portrayed his opponent as a classic conservative in disguise. Persson stated that, if put into power, the conservatives would tamper with Sweden's successful formula of high taxes, a large public sector and generous benefits. There
6888-480: The Swedish welfare state and argues for a liberal societal system. With phrases such as: "We don't want to see a society where people starve, but other than that no standard rights should be financed by taxes." The book later haunted Reinfeldt, when he faced criticism for phrases such as "The Swedes are mentally handicapped and indoctrinated to believe that politicians can create and guarantee welfare." From 1995 to 1997 he
7011-513: The age of 40 in 1925. With victories in 2006 and in 2010 , Reinfeldt was the Moderate Party's longest-serving prime minister and the only person to lead the party to two consecutive general election victories. His Government compromised four parties (including his own) which prior to the election had formed a coalition named Alliance for Sweden , later turned into the Alliance. At a press conference prior to his appointment, Reinfeldt commented that "this feels historic in many ways" partly because it
7134-460: The best country on several areas after the Great Recession , it brought a resurgence of support, which eventually resulted in his re-election in 2010 . This was the first time ever that the Moderate Party was re-elected after completing a full first term. Reinfeldt became President of the European Council on 1 July 2009, as Sweden took over the Presidency of the Council of the European Union from
7257-418: The capacity to grasp broad issues which the graduates acquire at the university or college . Whilst only a few economics graduates may be expected to become professional economists, many find it a base for entry into a career in finance – including accounting, insurance, tax and banking, or management . A number of economics graduates from around the world have been successful in obtaining employment in
7380-487: The complex nature of leadership which is found at all levels of institutions, both within formal and informal roles. Studies of leadership have produced theories involving (for example) traits , situational interaction, function, behavior , power , vision , values , charisma , and intelligence , among others. The Chinese doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven postulated the need for rulers to govern justly, and
7503-440: The conservatives and Kristersson the libertarians. Reinfeldt later stated that although the effects of that deep ideological division and battle in the party lingered on within the Moderate Youth League, he also felt that it was a defining moment in his life. Had he lost the battle he would most likely not be in politics today. In 1993 Reinfeldt wrote the book The Sleeping People (Swedish: Det sovande folket ), where he criticized
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#17328549444147626-696: The conservatives toward the middle ground by convincing voters that he would fix rather than dismantle the public welfare system. Reinfeldt even extended an invitation to the Swedish Trade Union Confederation , traditional supporter of the Social Democrats and opponent of the Moderate Party. He also changed the Moderate Party's traditional stance towards the Swedish Labour and employment laws , stating that he prefers small changes instead of any radical reform. People both within and outside
7749-482: The democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not "take charge", they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems. Theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation; this is sometimes called contingency theory . Three contingency leadership theories are
7872-406: The desired level, and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached. Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process, which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage model. Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as
7995-500: The early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors by evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles. David McClelland , for example, posited that leadership requires a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential. Kurt Lewin , Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939
8118-599: The economist profession in Brazil is regulated by law; specifically, Law № 1,411, of August 13, 1951. The professional designation of an economist, according to said law, is exclusive to those who graduated with a Bachelor of Economics degree in Brazil. According to the United States Department of Labor , there were about 15,000 non-academic economists in the United States in 2008, with a median salary of roughly $ 83,000, and
8241-452: The eldest of three brothers to his parents Bruno (1938–2016) and Birgitta Reinfeldt. At the time of his birth his parents lived in an apartment in Österhaninge , in the south of Stockholm County , but a short time afterwards the family moved to London , where his father worked as a consultant for Shell . Upon returning to Sweden, the family first lived in an apartment in Handen before moving to
8364-493: The entrance of the Sweden Democrats in parliament, the government could continue. Reinfeldt became the Prime Minister of Sweden on 6 October 2006 when he was confirmed by king Carl XVI Gustaf having been approved by the Riksdag the previous day, serving concurrently as Leader of the Moderate Party. The 41-year old Reinfeldt became the youngest person to become Prime Minister since Rickard Sandler became Prime Minister at
8487-543: The follower responds well, the leader rewards him/her with extra coaching, favorable job assignments, and developmental experiences. If the follower shows high commitment and effort followed by additional rewards, both parties develop mutual trust, influence, and support of one another. Research shows the in-group members usually receive higher performance evaluations from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than out-group members. In-group members are also likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing
8610-411: The followers to participate in group decision making and encouraged subordinate input. This entails avoiding controlling types of leadership and allows more personal interactions between leaders and their subordinates. The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964. It suggests five different leadership styles, based on
8733-643: The followers. Functional leadership theory addresses specific leader behaviors that contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion. While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership, it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well. In summarizing literature on functional leadership, researchers observed five broad functions
8856-473: The following: While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks. Specifically, Stephen Zaccaro noted that trait theories still: Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers adopted a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader-attribute-pattern approach. In contrast to
8979-567: The former chairman for the Swedish Social Democratic Youth League, stated that "the Moderates were right strategically to focus on unemployment". Former Social Democratic minister Leif Pagrotsky stated that internal fighting, authoritarianism and perceived aggressiveness as well as a loss of appeal to the middle class and city inhabitants contributed to the election loss. In the 2010 general election held on 19 September 2010
9102-493: The last 20 years suggests that applying reinforcement theory leads to a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs. Situational theory is another reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl Marx ) said that
9225-477: The leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of in-groups and out-groups . In-group members are said to have high-quality exchanges with the leader, while out-group members have low-quality exchanges with the leader. In-group members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If
9348-485: The leader behaviors that were effective. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades. New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the round-robin research design methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across
9471-511: The leader or by other stakeholders, not through the actions of the leader. In other words, the reproduction of information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known by historians that the naval hero Lord Nelson often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England, he would receive a true hero's welcome. In modern society, various media outlets, including
9594-412: The leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization. Leadership can be an emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with
9717-601: The leader's ability to build an interpersonal relationship with their followers, and to establish a form of mutual trust. These are considered "social oriented" behaviors. The Michigan State Studies, which were conducted in the 1950s, made further investigations and findings that positively correlated behaviors and leadership effectiveness. Although they had similar findings as the Ohio State studies, they also contributed an additional behavior identified in leaders: participative behavior (also called "servant leadership"), or allowing
9840-418: The leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement. B. F. Skinner is the father of behavior modification and developed the concept of positive reinforcement . Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future. The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in
9963-457: The lowest income earners and reducing unemployment benefits, in order to encourage the jobless to return to work. He toned down calls within the party for dismantling large portions of the Swedish welfare state, stating that change must come gradually from the bottom up and not be dictated from the top down. His goal was said to be to fine-tune the welfare state, by focusing on getting people off welfare benefits and into employment. He worked to shift
10086-408: The material was not meant to be released or spread to a wider audience. At the general election on 17 September 2006 the Alliance for Sweden won a majority of the votes after the first count, defeating the Social Democratic Party. The Moderates received 26.1 percent of the votes, a new record for the party and over 10 percentage points higher than in 2002. The election result was also historic in being
10209-400: The numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when his focus moved from first-degree to second-degree relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited. Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902) believed that public-spirited leadership could be nurtured by identifying young people with "moral force of character and instincts to lead", and educating them in contexts (such as the collegiate environment of
10332-411: The parliament's finance committee. On 25 October 2003 he was unanimously elected as the new leader of the Moderate Party. Under Reinfeldt's leadership, the Moderate Party adjusted its position in the political spectrum , moving towards the centre. To reflect these changes, the party's unofficial name was altered to "The New Moderates" (Swedish: De nya Moderaterna ) in order to emphasize the break with
10455-412: The party differ on their analysis of Reinfeldt's transformation of the Moderate Party, with some arguing that the party was mainly honing the way it describes its visions, and others suggesting that it constituted a substantial policy change towards the centre. As a consequence of Reinfeldt's shift of the Moderate Party to the centre, the differences between the Moderate Party and their traditional opponents
10578-415: The past. The Moderate Party started to focus more on calls for tax cuts for low- and middle-income groups, rather than on major tax cuts that would more benefit high-income earners. As leader of the Moderate Party, Reinfeldt tended to be less forceful in his criticism of the Swedish welfare state than his predecessors. He instead proposed reforms to Sweden's welfare state, which included cutting taxes for
10701-468: The press and blogs, present their own interpretations of leaders. These depictions can stem from actual circumstances, but they might also arise from political influences, monetary incentives, or the personal agendas of the author, media, or leader. Consequently, the impression of leaders is often constructed and may not accurately mirror their genuine leadership attributes. This highlights the historical role of concepts like royal lineage , which once stood as
10824-665: The private sector, where they may also "study data and statistics in order to spot trends in economic activity, economic confidence levels, and consumer attitudes. They assess this information using advanced methods in statistical analysis, mathematics, computer programming [and] they make recommendations about ways to improve the efficiency of a system or take advantage of trends as they begin." In addition to government and academia, economists are also employed in banking , finance , accountancy , commerce , marketing , business administration , lobbying and non- or not-for profit organizations. In many organizations, an " Economic Analyst "
10947-404: The qualities and behaviors associated with leaders and influencers developed only later during the 19th and 20th centuries - possibly traceable from 1870 onwards. Historically, industrialization , opposition to the ancien regime , and the phasing out of chattel slavery meant that some newly developing organizations ( nation-state republics , commercial corporations ) evolved a need for
11070-407: The question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the " trait theory of leadership ". A number of works in the 19th century – when
11193-449: The reduction of public spending. It privatised much of the health sector from 2006, with mixed results. While the number of specialists has increased, reducing waiting times for appointments, privatisation has also led to higher costs for the government (to make a profit, private institutions have to increase the number of consultations and interventions) and increased inequalities in access to health care, with specialists tending to leave
11316-561: The regions for the big cities and the suburbs for wealthier areas. In early 2013, the liberal British magazine The Economist praised the Reinfeldt government's reforms, pointing out that the country could become "the next liberal supermodel". The Moderate Party has a pro- European Union policy stance—including support for exchanging the SEK for the Euro —and also supports Sweden joining NATO . During
11439-405: The requirements for family reunification . During the last year of Reinfeldt's time in office Sweden faced the biggest influx of immigrants it had ever seen up until that point. During a press conference in the run-up to the 2014 election campaign Reinfeldt urged the Swedish people to "open their hearts" (Swedish: öppna era hjärtan ) to people fleeing wars, stating that he wouldn't promise much in
11562-495: The right of subordinates to overthrow emperors who appeared to lack divine sanction. Pro- aristocracy thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's "blue blood" or genes . Monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction (see the divine right of kings ). On the other hand, more democratically inclined theorists have pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as
11685-455: The same social backgrounds and interests. Out-group members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate job performance , good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a fair wage and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and
11808-500: The seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision making , praise and criticism ( feedback ), and the management of the group tasks ( project management ) according to three styles: authoritarian , democratic , and laissez-faire . In 1945, Ohio State University conducted
11931-423: The situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability. Victor Vroom , in collaboration with Phillip Yetton and later with Arthur Jago, developed a taxonomy for describing leadership situations. They used this in
12054-668: The social influence process. A leader's mood affects his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels: In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings. Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative emotions at work. The leader's behavior creates situations and events that lead to emotional response, for example by giving feedback, allocating tasks, and distributing resources. Since employee behavior and productivity are affected by their emotional states, it
12177-460: The strength of courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each appropriate to its function, then one can be a leader. Machiavelli's The Prince , written in the early-16th century, provided a manual for rulers ("princes" or "tyrants" in Machiavelli's terminology) to gain and keep political power . Prior to
12300-456: The support of Reinfeldt's policies dropped to one of the lowest ever seen for an incumbent Government. From 2009, the Swedish economy emerged as one of the world's fastest recovering economies with high competitiveness . Sweden was noted for having proved to overcome the crisis better than any other developed countries , and this was highlighted by the Government as a force in the run-up to the 2010 Swedish general election . As Sweden emerged as
12423-443: The task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented). According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power,
12546-403: The times produce the person and not the other way around. This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics: no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions." Some theorists synthesized
12669-665: The top ten percent earning more than $ 147,040 annually. Nearly 135 colleges and universities grant around 900 new Ph.D.s every year. Incomes are highest for those in the private sector, followed by the federal government, with academia paying the lowest incomes. As of January 2013, PayScale.com showed Ph.D. economists' salary ranges as follows: all Ph.D. economists, $ 61,000 to $ 160,000; Ph.D. corporate economists, $ 71,000 to $ 207,000; economics full professors, $ 89,000 to $ 137,000; economics associate professors, $ 59,000 to $ 156,000, and economics assistant professors, $ 72,000 to $ 100,000. The largest single professional grouping of economists in
12792-609: The traditional approach, the leader-attribute-pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables. In other words, the leader-attribute-pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes. In response to
12915-433: The traditional authority of monarchs, lords, and bishops had begun to wane – explored the trait theory at length: especially the writings of Thomas Carlyle and of Francis Galton . In Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. Galton's Hereditary Genius (1869) examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that
13038-405: The trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al., academics normalized the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management;
13161-454: The upcoming campaign considering the costs that the immigration would bring. The Sweden Democrats perceived the press conference as confirming their belief that asylum immigration is in conflict with the Swedish welfare state . He adopted a liberal roadmap, leading in particular to a modification of the tax system (including the abandonment of inheritance tax ), a tightening of the conditions of access to unemployment benefits or sick pay, and
13284-557: The world's strongest public finances and top rankings in climate and health care . He is the longest-serving non- Social Democratic Prime Minister since Erik Gustaf Boström 's first spell in office between 1891 and 1900. After his defeat in the 2014 election Reinfeldt announced that he would step down from leading the party, which he did on 10 January 2015. John Fredrik Reinfeldt was born in 1965 in Allmänna BB hospital in Stockholm ,
13407-418: The worst result for the Social Democrats ever (34.6 percent) in a general election under universal suffrage (introduced in 1921). Looking back at the defeat of the incumbent Social Democrats, the opinion among several members of the defeated incumbents was that the election was lost because the previous government failed to bring down unemployment, and failed to campaign on it as an issue. Ardalan Shekarabi ,
13530-619: The young Fredrik. At the age of 11, Reinfeldt became chairman of the student council (Swedish: elevrådet ) in his school, and became a fan of the football club Djurgårdens IF , a passion he maintains to this day. He started playing basketball for the "Tensta Tigers" while living in Bromsten (which is located adjacent to Tensta ), and continued to play for them after his family moved to Täby. At his secondary school, Åva gymnasium , he studied natural science for three years. He also enjoyed setting up and performing revues and cabarets . After school, Reinfeldt completed his military service as
13653-570: Was a key part of his premiership, in a continued community deed. On 1 September 2015 he published his autobiography Halfway , a reflection on his 25 years in Swedish and international politics. On 11 December 2015, Reinfeldt was nominated to become the next chairman of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative . In January 2016, Reinfeldt was awarded H. M. The King's Medal , 12th size with chain, for extraordinary efforts as Prime Minister. On 15 March 2016 it
13776-689: Was also marked by Barack Obama 's visit to Stockholm in September 2013. After the nationalist Sweden Democrats entered the Riksdag, Reinfeldt wanted to seek bipartisan consensus on immigration policy in an attempt to undercut and isolate the Sweden Democrats on their main issue. In early 2011 an agreement between the Alliance and the Green Party was reached, which would among other things, give undocumented immigrants access to universal healthcare and lessen
13899-456: Was also some criticism within the party; former Moderate Youth League chairman Christofer Fjellner called Reinfeldt's political reform "leftist rhetoric" (Swedish: vänsterretorik ). In the run-up to the general election of 2006 , Reinfeldt, as leader of the Moderate Party, participated in the creation of the Alliance for Sweden . It united the centre-right in a coalition of the Moderate Party,
14022-515: Was announced that Reinfeldt had been hired by Bank of America Merrill Lynch as a senior adviser for its business in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. On 25 March 2023, he was elected chairman of the Swedish Football Association . Reinfeldt has been called a "Swedish David Cameron ," insofar as he succeeded in shifting the public perception of the Moderate Party from a clear right-wing position to
14145-594: Was chairman of the Democrat Youth Community of Europe . Following the defeat of the Bildt government in the general election of 1994 he publicly criticized the Moderate Party leader Bildt, who he believed had become too dominant in the party. In 1995 Reinfeldt co-authored the book Nostalgitrippen ('The Nostalgic Trip'), which described several persons in the Moderate Party leadership, including Gunnar Hökmark and Bo Lundgren , as "Carl Bildt-lookalikes." Bildt
14268-513: Was completely unacceptable. A short time after the e-mail campaign, images that depicted Reinfeldt and the Moderate Party in an unflattering light were spread internally within the Social Democratic Party and subsequently leaked to the media. Social Democratic Party spokeswoman Carina Persson confirmed that the material came from the Social Democratic Youth League , but denied the existence of an official smear campaign and stated that
14391-417: Was described as being the perfect leader for the opposition to satirize ; a nobleman living in the affluent Östermalm with a boyish expression and a better-than-you attitude. As for the other high party officials, the book stated that "If everyone appears similar to Carl it confirms peoples misconceptions about the Moderate Party. It becomes a party for Carl Bildt-copies." This provoked swift reaction from
14514-557: Was developed by Robert House and was based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom . According to House, "leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance". The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented , directive , participative , and supportive , that are contingent to environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to
14637-410: Was ostracized within the Moderate Party and not given any important posts until after the change of leadership when Lundgren succeeded Bildt in 1999. At that time he was elected into a high party group, the förtroenderåd . From 2001 to 2002 Reinfeldt was chairman of the justice committee of the Riksdag. During this time he traveled around the country gathering impressions and support at the local level of
14760-452: Was subjected to a smear campaign . Mats Lindström, a staff member in the Social Democratic Party headquarters, admitted to sending e-mails accusing Reinfeldt of tax fraud, false financial declarations and only attaining his position because of his father's influence. The IP address used in the e-mails was traced to the Social Democratic Party headquarters. Social Democratic Party Secretary Marita Ulvskog apologized and said that such behavior
14883-477: Was the chairman of the Moderate Youth League. He ousted the former chairman Ulf Kristersson at the controversial congress known as the Battle of Lycksele , securing 58 of the delegates' votes while Kristersson received only 55. The congress was controversial because it was the culmination of a long ideological battle within the Moderate Youth League between the conservatives and the libertarians ; Reinfeldt represented
15006-496: Was the first time in 36 years there would be a majority government in Sweden. The 2007–2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession had a major impact on the Economy of Sweden . Reinfeldt's Government emphasized that a balanced budget was a priority, combined with income tax cuts to stimulate domestic production and commerce. The Cabinet received criticism for holding to hard in the public finances, with limited investments, and
15129-456: Was the third-youngest person to become Prime Minister of Sweden. Reinfeldt's first term in office included the 2007–2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession . His popularity fell until the economy of Sweden emerged as one of the strongest in Europe ; this brought a resurgence of support for him, resulting in his government's re-election in 2010 . Reinfeldt's second government was reduced to
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