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34-428: Member countries have more recently incorporated narcoterrorism and drug smuggling as focus areas for RATS, as narcotics have become a major source of funding for anti-government activities within member states. The organization also maintains a database of individuals and organizations aiding organizations designated as terrorists, separatists or extremists by member states. RATS has been described by researchers at

68-855: A "terrorist group", Pakistan opposes the definition. What China claims are counterterrorism efforts in Xinjiang are criticized by other RATS members, and much of the international community, as persecution of Muslim ethnic minorities . Definitions of "terrorists" and "terrorist groups" have become more blurry and sensitive as the SCO has grown, and member states have tended to retain inconsistent definitions and standards concerning counterterrorism. The list of entities designated as terrorist groups active in each member state has also been criticized for being discretionary, dictated by member governments. Russia since has used this authority to designate government opposition politician Alexei Navalny 's Anti-Corruption Foundation (FBK)

102-413: A role in non-traditional governance. Many fragile states rely on non-state actors for protection and administration. More traditional methods of governance include local courts and clans, on the other end, non-traditional NSA groups govern as paramilitaries or rebel groups. The importance of this is that in the last 20 years non-state actors have acquired legal recognition due to their heavy involvement in

136-493: A terrorist entity with RATS. Narcoterrorism Narcoterrorism , in its original context, is understood to refer to the attempts of narcotics traffickers to influence the policies of a government or a society through violence and intimidation , and to hinder the enforcement of anti-drug laws by the systematic threat or use of such violence. As with most definitions of terrorism, it typically only refers to non-state actors . Pablo Escobar 's violence in his dealings with

170-644: Is being increasingly used for terrorist organizations that engage in drug trafficking activity to fund their operations and gain recruits and expertise. Such organizations include FARC , ELN , AUC in Colombia, PCP-SL in Peru, Hamas , Hezbollah , and the Taliban . A 2013 Congressional Research Service report noted that in 2003, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) reported that 14 of 36 (39%) of

204-507: Is often said to finance its activities through drug trafficking, the 9/11 Commission Report notes that "while the drug trade was a source of income for the Taliban , it did not serve the same purpose for al Qaeda, and there is no reliable evidence that bin Laden was involved in or made his money through drug trafficking." The organization gains most of its finances through donations, particularly those by "wealthy Saudi individuals". Critics of

238-494: Is particularly challenging since international law and the norms governing the use of force for intervention or peacekeeping purposes were written primarily in the context of the nation-state. Additionally, armed non-state actors have recently been held accountable to international law with the United Nations Security Council ’s decision to allow the self-defense principle to be applied against an NSA. After

272-516: The 19th of April Movement (Marxist guerrillas) sieged the palace of Justice in order to hold all supreme magistrates hostage. The organized military reaction caused the building to burn resulting in the deaths of 91 people, 11 of which were judges. Although the M-19 denies being funded from outside sources, multiple sources say the Medellin Cartel funded them. Additionally, numerous bombs detonated across

306-541: The Cold War ended has been one of the factors leading to the Cobweb Paradigm in international politics. Under this paradigm , the traditional Westphalian nation-state experiences an erosion of power and sovereignty, and non-state actors are part of the cause. Facilitated by globalization , NSAs challenge nation-state borders and sovereignty claims. MNCs are not always sympathetic to national interests but are loyal to

340-528: The Colombian government is probably one of the most known and best documented examples of narcoterrorism. The term itself was coined by former President Fernando Belaúnde Terry of Peru in 1983 when describing terrorist attacks against his nation's anti-narcotics police. The term has become a subject of controversy, largely due to its use in discussing violent opposition to the US government's War on Drugs . The term

374-805: The Cotonou Agreement between the European Union (EU) and African, Caribbean and Pacific ACP countries . The agreement uses the term to refer to a wide range of nongovernmental development actors whose participation in ACP-EU development cooperation is now formally recognized. According to Article 6, non-state actors include: In practice, it means that participation is open to all kind of actors, such as community-based organisations, women's groups, human rights associations, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), religious organizations, farmers' cooperatives , trade unions , universities and research institutes,

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408-577: The Human Rights Council . Formal international organizations may also rely on non-state actors, particularly NGOs in the form of implementing partners in the national context. An example is the contribution of COHRE (Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions), to the protection of land and property (HLP) rights in Kosovo by conceptualizing the Housing and Property Directorate (now Kosovo Property Agency) within

442-655: The United States Army War College as "SCO’s most important and best-functioning component structure to date." The director of the RATS Executive Committee is appointed by the SCO Council of Heads of State to a three-year term after which the role is traditionally transferred to the representative of another member state, rotating by order of accession. The current director is Ruslan Mirzaev of Uzbekistan , who assumed office on 1 January 2022. RATS

476-402: The prohibition of drugs say that prohibition itself funds terrorism, due to it indirectly making the black market and criminal organizations responsible for all sale. Areas or countries that have experienced narcoterrorist activity or narco-warfare include: During the period from 1984–1993, Colombia was known as one of the countries to have suffered a number of terrorist attacks at

510-596: The Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ), and the Economic Cooperation Organization ( ECO ). Member states have flexibility to appoint whomever they would like to represent their interests with RATS. There is no statutory requirement for the official to come from an intelligence or law enforcement background, though the Russian Federation for example has traditionally been represented by

544-947: The SCO Charter, the Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism, the Agreement among the SCO member states on the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure, as well as the documents and decisions adopted in the framework of the SCO. To varying extents, RATS has cooperation agreements with the United Nations , Interpol , the Commonwealth of the Independent States ( CIS ), the Collective Security Treaty Organization ( CSTO ),

578-520: The U.S. Bush administration , of Plan Colombia , intending to eradicate drug crops and to act against drug lords accused of engaging in narcoterrorism, including among them the leaders of the Marxist FARC and the AUC paramilitary forces. The U.S. government is funding large-scale drug eradication campaigns and supporting Colombian military operations, seeking the extradition of commanders. Although al-Qaeda

612-461: The armed NSA since most armed non-state actors often reside on the territory of a sovereign state , which thus may also endure a retaliatory or preemptive attack. The 9/11 attacks had a significant impact in demonstrating that non-state actors may be held accountable to international law and may contend in the political and the military arenas, alongside states. The term Non State Actors is widely used in development cooperation , particularly under

646-569: The corporation's interests instead. NSAs challenge the nation-state's sovereignty over internal matters through advocacy for societal issues, such as human rights and the environment. Armed non-state actors operate without state control and are involved in internal and trans-border conflicts. The activity of such groups in armed conflicts adds layers of complexity to traditional conflict management and resolution. The conflicts are often fought not only between non-state actors and states but also between multiple NSA groups. Interventions in such conflicts

680-508: The country, the most memorable bomb being the one that brought down Avianca Flight 203 during its flight over Soacha Cundinamarca resulting in 107 dead in 1989. In Colombian history, the FARC were initially major enemies of the drug cartels. The MAS (Muerte a los secuestradores - Death to the kidnappers) was a group created by the most eminent members of the Cali cartel, including Escobar and Ochoa against

714-801: The debate on the nature of the conflict in Colombia, and consequently on the character of the FARC. Non-state actors A non-state actor ( NSA ) is an individual or organization that has significant political influence but is not allied to any particular country or state. The interests, structure, and influence of NSAs vary widely. For example, among NSAs are non-profit organizations , labor unions , non-governmental organizations , banks , corporations , media organizations , business magnates , people's liberation movements , lobby groups , religious groups , aid agencies , and violent non-state actors such as paramilitary forces . Some common and influential classes of NSAs are listed here in alphabetical order: The proliferation of non-state actors since

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748-472: The drug traffickers, these connections were described as « temporary alliances ». President Alvaro Uribe, who was elected on the idea of waging an all-out war against the FARC, over-emphasized the link between drugs and the FARC as well as the terrorist nature of the guerilla group in a post 2001 context: “(Álvaro Uribe) increasingly equated the guerrillas with drug traffickers and terrorists” . This policy has provoked much criticism which has enriched

782-621: The framework of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo. Non-state actors are fundamental agents in helping to achieve both national and international development goals, such as those around climate change. Actions by non-state actors contribute significantly towards filling the greenhouse gas emissions gap left by unambitious or poorly executed national climate policies, Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs). Another example that shows

816-617: The government’s policies on extradition and their collaborations with the United States government who sought to bring the Colombian drug bosses to justice. These terrorist acts typically consisted of assassinations of political figures, kidnappings, and bombings. The wing of the cartel also known as Los Priscos reportedly also participated directly in these acts of terrorism at the behest of the Medellín Cartel’s top leaders. Pablo Escobar

850-428: The groups designated by the U.S. as foreign terrorist organizations "were involved 'to some degree' in illicit narcotics activity" while in fiscal year 2010, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) "reported that 29 of the top 63 international drug syndicates, identified as such on the consolidated priority organization target (CPOT) list, were associated with terrorists." In 2000 the U.S. began funding, continued under

884-485: The guerrillas who had kidnapped one of Ochoa's sister. The MAS was responsible for the deaths of 500 members of the Patriotic Union, a political party that emerged from the demobilization of part of the FARC in the 1990s. Significantly, it is worth recalling that Medellin cartel refused to buy coca from peasants living in areas under FARC control. From then on, even when there was evidence of collaboration between FARC and

918-500: The hands of narcotic traffickers. Belisario Betancourt , Virgilio Barco and César Gaviria were three Colombian presidents that constantly battled against the Medellín Cartel ’s unrelenting war on the government, especially through its branch known as Los Extraditables led by Pablo Escobar Gaviria , Gustavo Gaviria and Gonzalo Rodriguez Gacha . A number of crimes by “Los Extraditables” were due to their constant battles against

952-485: The importance of non-state actors in peace-building is the contribution of ICBL (International Campaign to Ban Landmines) to the international prohibition on the use of landmines. ICBL is a global network of NGOs that has operated in over 90 countries since 1992. Its primary goal is to make a world free of anti-personnel landmines . Their passionate advertising appealing for global cooperation drew Diana, Princess of Wales to become an ardent advocate. Together, they brought

986-698: The issue to the United Nations General Assembly . ICBL's efforts led the international community to urge states to ratify the Ottawa Treaty (Mine Ban Treaty) in 1997, and its contribution was recognized and praised as it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in the same year. Non-state actors also have a role in governance . While NSAs are incredibly useful in advancing international peace, monitoring human rights violations, and lobbying for socio-political issues like climate change, they also play

1020-408: The media and the private sector. Also included in this definition are informal groups such as grassroots organizations , informal private sector associations, etc. The private sector, however, is considered only insofar as it is involved in non-profit activities (e.g. private sector associations, chambers of commerce, etc.) Non-state actors can aid in opinion building in international affairs, such as

1054-611: The principle deputy director of the FSB , and most Chinese representatives including previous RATS director Zhang Xinfeng have been members of the Ministry of Public Security . Criticism of the SCO RATS within the organization has centered mainly around how the group describes its adversaries. Although China, India and Russia name the Pakistan-based Islamic extremist group Jaish-e-Mohammed

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1088-564: The terrorist attacks of 9/11, the US and the UN debated whether the right of self-defense, as protected by the UN Charter 's Article 51 , was applicable to armed non-state actors, in this case Al-Qaeda . Article 51 allows member states to pursue a preemptive self-defense if they know that an imminent attack is coming. Many issues still remain on the extent to which the potential victim state could retaliate against

1122-459: Was elected as a representative as an alternative congress delegate, but allegations from politicians, the newspaper “El Espectador” and the minister of justice declared him a drug trafficker and he was eventually dismissed from Congress on January 4, 1984. On April 30, 1984, a motorcycle gunman from the Medellin Cartel killed the minister of Justice Rodrigo Lara Bonilla . On November 6, 1985

1156-574: Was headquartered in Tashkent , Uzbekistan, until 2022, when the organisation voted to move its headquarters to Moscow , Russia. RATS' official languages are Chinese , Russian and English . RATS was established in during a meeting of the Council of Heads of SCO Member States on June 7, 2002, in Saint Petersburg , though the organization did not become active until 2004. It is governed in accordance with

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