Misplaced Pages

#261738

43-534: The novel contained a highly negative portrayal for the Sino-American Cooperative Organization , as responsible for the running prisons jailing communists and other political dissidents, although in reality they were actually run by the KMT secret police service BIS , and had no American involvement. The main protagonist Jiang Xueqin, or "Sister Jiang" ( Chinese : 江姐 ; pinyin : Jiāng Jiě ),

86-823: A daunting task. Part of Stratemeyer's command, the Tenth Air Force, had been integrated with the RAF Third Tactical Air Force in India in December 1943 and was tasked with a number of roles in support of a variety of allied forces. Another component, the US Fourteenth Air Force in China, was under the jurisdiction of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek as China theater commander. Although the India-China Division of

129-720: A new obsession for him. "On April 14, 1942, William Donovan , as Coordinator of Information (forerunner of the Office of Strategic Services ), activated Detachment 101 for action behind enemy lines in Burma . The first unit of its kind, the Detachment was charged with gathering intelligence, harassing the Japanese through guerrilla actions , identifying targets for the Army Air Force to bomb, and rescuing downed Allied airmen. Because Detachment 101

172-565: A rate of 2 1/2 Japanese for each weapon supplied to the guerrillas by SACO. This "kill ratio" was unmatched by any branch of the American military during the war. CAPT Miles deputy's estimate of Japanese deaths was a less generous 23,000. The official SACO organization dissolved in 1946 after the close of the war, with the subsequent departure of the Naval Group China. However some KMT loyal SACO-trained guerillas continued aggression against

215-403: A systematic firebombing of Japanese cities. Chinese Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek realized it was all fantasy. On the other hand, there were vast sums of American dollars available if he collaborated. He did so and managed to feed his starving soldiers, but they were so poorly equipped and led that offensive operations against the Japanese in China were impossible. However, Chiang did release

258-486: Is a highly fictionalized account of one group of weather observers. SACO is specifically mentioned as their parent organization. China Burma India Theater Second Sino-Japanese War Taishō period Shōwa period Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups China Burma India Theater ( CBI ) was the United States military designation during World War II for

301-485: Is also based on this novel. Sino-American Cooperative Organization The Sino-American Special Technical Cooperative Organization , also known as the Sino-American Cooperative Organization (SACO), was an intelligence gathering organization created by China and the United States during the Second World War . It was formed by the 1942 SACO Treaty and worked against Japan . It operated in China jointly with

344-552: Is based on the Communist revolutionary Jiang Zhuyun (1920–1949). Xujun Eberlein wrote in The Atlantic that "The novel played a critical role in the heroism culture of the Mao era." The book includes a poem that was attributed to, but was not written by, the revolutionary "martyr" Chen Ran (陈然, 1923－1949). The 1964 Chinese-language western-style opera titled Sister Jiang is based on

387-654: The China and Southeast Asian or India–Burma (IBT) theaters . Operational command of Allied forces (including U.S. forces) in the CBI was officially the responsibility of the Supreme Commanders for South East Asia or China. In practice, U.S. forces were usually overseen by General Joseph Stilwell , the Deputy Allied Commander in China; the term "CBI" was significant in logistical, material and personnel matters; it

430-673: The 1st Air Commando Group . Within Eastern Air Command, Air Marshal Sir John Baldwin commanded the Third Tactical Air Force, originally formed to provide close air support to the Fourteenth Army. Baldwin was later succeeded by Air Marshal Sir Alec Coryton . U.S. Brigadier-General Howard C. Davidson and later Air Commodore F. J. W. Mellersh commanded the Strategic Air Force. In the new command, various units of

473-535: The British Fourteenth Army , under the command of General William Slim , could be co-ordinated. However, in practice, Gen. Stilwell never agreed to this arrangement. Stilwell was able to do this because of his multiple positions within complex command structures, including especially his simultaneous positions of Deputy Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia, and Chief of Staff to Chinese leader Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek . As SEAC's deputy leader, Stilwell

SECTION 10

#1732851804262

516-470: The Burma Road . Moving north, the Japanese took Tounggoo and captured Lashio in northern Burma on 29 April. The British, primarily concerned with India, looked to Burma as the main theater of action against Japan and wanted Chinese troops to fight there. The United States conjured up visions of millions of Chinese soldiers who would hold the Japanese then throw them back, while providing close-in airbases for

559-580: The CCP during the civil war (1946–1949). SACO arrested, tortured, and killed political dissidents. For a long period after the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War , SACO became associated with imperial foreign aggression and atrocities of the revolution were attributed to sinister US involvement. The Chinese government memorialized incidents of torture and massacre at Chongqing former SACO headquarters at Happy Valley  [ zh ] , and displayed

602-627: The Chinese Expeditionary Force of two Chinese armies for action in Burma under Stilwell . Due to conflicts between Chiang, the British, Stilwell, and American General Claire Chennault , as well as general ill-preparedness against the more proficient Japanese army, the Burma defense collapsed. Stilwell escaped to India, but the recovery of Burma and construction of the Ledo Road to supply China became

645-739: The European Theater of Operations , the CBI was never a " theater of operations " and did not have an overall operational command structure. Initially U.S. land units were split. Those in China were technically commanded by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek , as Stillwell was Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander in China. When the GALAHAD force (later to become the 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional)) arrived in Bombay in October 1943, it came under

688-581: The Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington, D.C., and had no command relationship with any authority in India. However, XX Bomber Command remained totally dependent on Eastern Air Command for supplies, bases, ground staff, and infrastructure support. The B-29 force included the 1st Photo Squadron , and the 58th Bombardment Wing at Chakulia , Kharagpur , with the 40th ( Chakulia Airport ), 444th , 462nd , and 468th Bombardment Groups . While in India, XX BC

731-542: The Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the first US intelligence agency and forerunner of the CIA , while also serving as joint training program between the two nations. The first and last operational chief of the organization was Dai Li (Tai Li, Dai/Tai is the surname), head of Chiang Kai-shek 's secret police , the Bureau of Investigation and Statistics . A fierce anti-communist and shadowy man of mystery, General Dai also commanded

774-554: The "Gele Mountain Revolution Memorial Museum" in Geleshan , citing American supplied handcuffs and weapons in the exhibition as evidence of American involvement. The coalition was blamed for atrocities committed years after dissolution, with no acknowledgement of SACO's participation in the war against Japan. Only recently has the government taken a position to "restore history's original face." The 1953 movie Destination Gobi

817-455: The 5332d Brigade, Provisional or 'Mars Task Force', which assumed the Marauders' mission. Japanese policy towards China had long been a source of international controversy. Western powers had exploited China through the open door policy , advocated by United States diplomat William Woodville Rockhill , while Japan intervened more directly, creating the puppet-state of Manchukuo . By 1937, Japan

860-691: The AAF's Air Transport Command received its tonnage allocations from Stratemeyer as Stilwell's deputy, ICD reported directly to Headquarters ATC in Washington, D.C. In the spring of 1944, the arrival of Boeing B-29 Superfortresses in the theater, presaged a major offensive against Japan. XX Bomber Command of the Twentieth Air Force was tasked with the strategic bombing of Japan under Operation Matterhorn . It engaged in very-long-range Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombardment operations against Japan, Formosa , China, Indochina and Burma . It reported directly to

903-560: The British-led South East Asia Command (SEAC) and Admiral Lord Mountbatten . However, Stilwell often broke the chain of command and communicated directly with the US Joint Chiefs of Staff on operational matters. When joint allied command was agreed upon, it was decided that the senior position should be held by a British officer because the British had the greatest number of forces in India and Burma (in much

SECTION 20

#1732851804262

946-654: The Loyal Patriotic Army (LPA), a large militia force active in Japanese-occupied interior regions of China. Commander for the American forces was United States Navy Captain Milton E. Miles . "Mary" Miles, later a Vice Admiral, was commander of Naval Group China (NGC), the American Navy 's intelligence unit in China during the war. In April 1943, SACO began setting up camps (later known as units when Naval Group China

989-749: The Philippines , Malaya , Singapore , Hong Kong , Guam , Wake Island , and Thailand . Japan cut off Allied supplies to China that had been coming through Burma . China could be supplied only by flying over the Himalaya mountains (" The Hump ") from India, or capturing territory in Burma and building a new road—the Ledo Road . In 1941 and 1942, Japan was overextended. Its naval base could not defend its conquests, and its industrial base could not strengthen its navy. To cut off China from Allied aid, it went into Burma and captured Rangoon on 8 March 1942, cutting off

1032-484: The Royal Air Force and the U.S. Tenth Air Force worked side-by-side. In the autumn of 1943 SEAAC had 48 RAF and 17 USAAF squadrons; by the following May, the figures had risen to 64 and 28, respectively. At Eastern Air Command, Gen. Stratemeyer had a status comparable to that of Stilwell. Coordinating the efforts of the various allied air components while maintaining relations with diverse command structures proved

1075-631: The advance of the Chinese Ledo forces into north Burma in late 1943 meant that he was often out of touch with both his own headquarters and with the overall situation. Not until late 1944, after Stilwell was recalled to Washington, was the chain of command clarified. His overall role, and the CBI command, was then split among three people: Lt Gen. Raymond Wheeler became Deputy Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia; Major-General Albert Wedemeyer became Chief of Staff to Chiang Kai-shek, and commander of US Forces, China Theater (USFCT). Lt Gen. Daniel Sultan

1118-632: The defense of China to be vital to the defense of the United States. Over the summer, as Japan moved south into French Indo-China , the U.S., Britain and the Netherlands instituted an oil embargo on Japan, cutting off 90% of its supplies. The embargo threatened the operations of the Kwantung Army , which had over a million soldiers deployed in China. Japan responded with a tightly co-ordinated offensive on 7/8 December, simultaneously attacking Pearl Harbor ,

1161-504: The formation of ACSEA in November 1943, and the middle of August 1944, American and British forces operating in Burma destroyed or damaged more than 700 Japanese aircraft with a further 100 aircraft probably destroyed. This achievement considerably reduced dangers to Air Transport Command cargo planes flying in support of the Hump airlift operation. By May 1944, EAC resupply missions in support of

1204-420: The last year of war was the development and preparation of the China coast for Allied penetration and occupation. In total, the guerrillas trained and supported by SACO/Naval Group China had destroyed more than 200 bridges, 84 locomotives, and 141 ships and river craft. Their activities were responsible for the deaths of around 71,000 Japanese military personnel, and the guerrillas themselves killed about 30,000-

1247-613: The novel. The opera was composed by Yang Ming and Jiang Chunyang, musicians of the art bureau of the Chinese Air Force . In 1965, a feature film adaptation directed by Shui Hua was released; titled Eternity in Flames ( 烈火中永生 ), it starred Yu Lan and Zhao Dan . In 2002, at the invitation of the German World Art Festival, director Zhang Yuan presented a Peking opera (also titled Sister Jiang ), with Zhang Huoding in

1290-661: The same way as the US did in the Pacific War ). Admiral Lord Mountbatten was appointed as the Supreme Allied Commander of South-East Asia forces in October 1943. Chiang however later objected to deferring to Mountbatten on matters related to operations in China. General Stilwell, who also had operational command of the Northern Combat Area Command (NCAC), a US-Chinese formation, was to report in theory to Gen. George Giffard – commander of Eleventh Army Group – so that NCAC and

1333-706: The theater, with Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse as Commander-in-Chief. Under Peirse's deputy, USAAF Major General George E. Stratemeyer , Eastern Air Command (EAC) was organized in 1943 to control Allied air operations in Burma, with headquarters in Calcutta . Unlike the strained relations and confusion with Allied ground force commands, air force operations in the CBI were relatively smooth. Relations improved even further after new U.S. military aid began arriving, together with capable USAAF officers such as Brigadier General William D. Old of CBI Troop Carrier Command, and Colonels Philip Cochran and John R. Alison of

Red Crag - Misplaced Pages Continue

1376-479: The three original command organizations at Ramgarh.) Headquarters Ramgarh Training Center was responsible for the training of Chinese Army in India, and Headquarters Chinese Army in India was responsible for the activation, organization, administration, and command of Chinese units. After consultation among the Allied governments, Air Command South-East Asia was formed in November 1943 to control all Allied air forces in

1419-585: The title role, at the Cologne Grand Theater - the first major presentation of a revolutionary opera in Europe. Zhang Yuan made a film version of the production in 2003. In 2004, a Peking opera titled Hua Ziliang was produced by Tianjin Chinese Opera Theater for DVD in 2004 with Wang Pin in the title role. Hua Ziliang is a character from the novel. A 2010 CCTV-1 TV series also titled Sister Jiang

1462-582: The wartime missions that Americans set up in China, SACO was the only one that adopted a policy of "total immersion" with the Chinese. The "Rice Paddy Navy" or "What-the-Hell Gang" operated in the China-Burma-India theatre , advising and training, forecasting weather and scouting landing areas for USN fleet and General Claire Lee Chennault 's 14th AF , rescuing downed American flyers , and intercepting Japanese radio traffic. An underlying mission objective during

1505-425: Was Giffard's superior, but as operational commander of NCAC, Giffard was Stilwell's superior. As the two men did not get on, this inevitably lead to conflict and confusion. Stilwell, however, bitterly resisted [taking orders from Giffard] ... To watch Stilwell, when hard pressed, shift his opposition from one of the several strong-points he held by virtue of his numerous Allied, American and Chinese offices, to another

1548-442: Was a lesson in mobile offensive-defence. Eventually at a SEAC meeting to sort out the chain of command for NCAC, Stilwell astonished everyone by saying "I am prepared to come under General Slim's operational control until I get to Kamaing ". Although far from ideal, this compromise was accepted. Although Stilwell was the control and co-ordinating point for all command activity in the theater, his assumption of personal direction of

1591-521: Was and is commonly used within the US for these theaters. U.S. and Chinese fighting forces in the CBI included the Chinese Expeditionary Force , the Flying Tigers , transport and bomber units flying the Hump , including the Tenth Air Force , the 1st Air Commando Group , the engineers who built the Ledo Road , the 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional) , popularly known as "Merrill's Marauders", and

1634-455: Was engaged in a full-scale war of conquest in China . The infamous Rape of Nanking galvanized Western opinion and led to direct financial aid for the Kuomintang (Nationalists) and increasing economic sanctions against Japan. In 1941, the U.S. made a series of decisions to support China in its war with Japan: Lend Lease supplies were provided after President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced

1677-627: Was established on 30 June 1942 by General Stilwell, the Commanding General, USAF, CBI, for the training of Chinese troops in India. The Supreme Commander, China Theater, General Chiang Kai-Shek, had approved Ramgarh Cantonment , as the site for a training center to train, equip, and reinforce the Chinese troops that had retreated into India from Burma. The first Chinese troops arrived on 17 July 1942. Headquarters RTC and Hq Camp Ramgarh combined and CG RTC assumed command on 1 February 1943. (These two organizations and Hq Chinese Army in India were

1720-544: Was established) to train Chinese guerrillas in small arms, demolition, sabotage, combat techniques, radio handling, aircraft and ship recognition, and aerology. Many, if not most, of the American instructors had backgrounds in law enforcement prior to the war. While some of the recruits the Chinese provided were unhealthy to some degree, they surprised their instructors with their willingness and ability to learn. About 2500 sailors and Marines trained and operated with Chinese guerrilla forces, often behind Japanese lines. Among all

1763-578: Was never larger than a few hundred Americans, it relied on support from various tribal groups in Burma. In particular, the vigorously anti-Japanese Kachin people were vital to the unit's success." Detachment 101's efforts opened the way for Stilwell's Chinese forces, Wingate's Raiders, Merrill's Marauders , and the counter-attack against the Japanese Imperial life-line. US forces in the CBI were administered by General Joseph "Vinegar Joe" Stilwell . However, unlike other combat theaters, for example

Red Crag - Misplaced Pages Continue

1806-670: Was promoted, from deputy commander of CBI to commander of US Forces, India–Burma Theater (USFIBT) and commander of the NCAC. The 11th Army Group was redesignated Allied Land Forces South East Asia (ALFSEA), and NCAC was decisively placed under this formation. However, by the time the last phase of the Burma Campaign began in earnest, NCAC had become irrelevant, and it was dissolved in early 1945. Ramgarh Training Center, in Bihar Province, India, an American-staffed, American-operated organisation,

1849-419: Was supported logistically by Tenth Air Force and the India-China Division, Air Transport Command . The B-29 groups moved to West Field, Tinian , in early 1945. After a period of reshuffling, Eastern Air Command's air operations began to show results. In August 1944, Admiral Mountbatten said to a press conference that EAC fighter missions had practically swept the Japanese air force from Burmese skies. Between

#261738