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105-431: Rasoherina (1814 – 1 April 1868) (also Rasoherina-Manjaka ) was Queen of Madagascar from 1863 to 1868, succeeding her husband Radama II following his presumed assassination. Rasoherina, niece of Queen Ranavalona I , was born Princess Rabodozanakandriana in 1814, the daughter of Prince Andriantsalamanandriana, of Ambohitraina and Princess Rafaramanjaka (Ramirahavavy). As a young woman, she married Raharolahy (Raharola),

210-573: A Zanzibari traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition . In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that Malagasikara was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were Malagasy , and not Madagasy . Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo , possibly throughout

315-492: A strongman . Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of a famine . In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout

420-449: A century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810). From his initial capital Ambohimanga , and later from the Rova of Antananarivo , this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–28), who

525-808: A constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a political crisis and military coup in 2009 , Madagascar underwent a protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014. Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie . Malagasy and French are both official languages of

630-405: A contract stipulating conditions that in effect created a constitutional monarchy placing the real ruling power in the hands of the prime minister. These conditions included the suppression of tangena (a traditional trial by ordeal ) as well as the monarchy's defense of freedom of religion . Rabodo was crowned on 13 May 1863 under the throne name of Rasoherina. The real power of the kingdom at

735-579: A growing faction of nobles was growing increasingly concerned with the drastic nature of Radama 's reform policies. These included the Lambert Charter , which had given the French disproportionate rights to the exploitation of the island's resources, and which Rainivoninahitriniony attempted fruitlessly to contest. Rainivoninahitriniony united this group of nobles under his leadership and acted as their spokesperson in communicating their increasing frustrations to

840-519: A multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade. Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana ,

945-403: A public address, asking those favorable to her rule to walk with her through the capital; a massive crowd paraded with her through the city, demonstrating their support for her continued authority. The queen then delivered a speech at Andohalo ordering the public to turn in any known conspirators to bring them to justice, before returning to the Rova to reassume her royal duties. The windows along

1050-601: A result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population. The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839. Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde , an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of

1155-603: A subtropical to tropical maritime climate. Madagascar was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium AD by Austronesian peoples , presumably arriving on outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia . These were joined around the ninth century AD by Bantu groups crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Consequently, there are 18 or more classified peoples of Madagascar ,

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1260-682: A successful statesman in his own right who received 15 state honors and served as Secretary to the Embassy to the United Kingdom (1836–37), Second Minister for Foreign Affairs in French matters (1862), Minister for the Interior (1862–64), Counselor of Government (1864–65) and Governor of Toamasina (1865). The couple divorced in 1847 and that same year she was married to Ranavalona 's son and heir, Rakoto. When he succeeded his mother in 1861 as King Radama II , she

1365-482: A sum of 240,000 ariary (~ 1,200,000 French francs) was paid to France in reparations for the breach of this lucrative trade agreement. On 27 June 1865, she signed a treaty with the United Kingdom giving British citizens the right to rent land and property on the island and to have a resident ambassador. On 14 February 1867, she signed a treaty with the United States of America that limited the importation of weapons and

1470-563: A variety of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine and vincristine are vinca alkaloids , used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma , leukemia , and other cancers, were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle . The traveler's palm , known locally as ravinala and endemic to the eastern rain forests, is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo. Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna

1575-581: Is Antananarivo . Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana , Madagascar split from Africa during the Early Jurassic , around 180 million years ago, and split from the Indian subcontinent around 90 million years ago, allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation; consequently, it is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries , with over 90% of wildlife being endemic. The island has

1680-518: Is also historically attested. A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from "Malagaskar" to what would eventually become New York City . An 1882 edition of the British newspaper The Graphic referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of Malay origin, and may be related to the name of Malacca . In 1891, Saleh bin Osman,

1785-621: Is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012 , there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur , 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than

1890-462: Is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited. One hypothesis relates Madagascar to the word Malay , referring to the Austronesian origin of

1995-484: The 1973 oil crisis , resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of

2100-475: The High Transitional Authority , an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum , establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election , which

2205-567: The Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous . This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along

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2310-728: The Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews. During the Second World War , the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force. The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized

2415-549: The Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet , translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island. Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave

2520-572: The Malagasy people in modern-day Indonesia . In a map by Muhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is named Gesira Malai , or "Malay island" in Arabic . The inversion of this name to Malai Gesira , as it was known by the Greeks , is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island. The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as Malichu , an abbreviated form of Malai Insula , in

2625-515: The Portuguese India Armadas . Matatana was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10 km west of Fort Dauphin . In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of Portuguese India , Jeronimo de Azevedo . Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King João III and by

2730-501: The Rova to reassure the public with her presence. However, the windows along the route to the Rova were reportedly all ordered shut, whether to protect the Queen from projectiles or to keep the nobles of the upper town from viewing the advanced state of her infirmity. The physical and emotional exertion further weakened the queen, who died four days later, on April 1, 1868. Two main theories about

2835-700: The Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the Andringitra Massif , and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi). The western and southern sides, which lie in

2940-615: The Vazimba . Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo , Ralambo , and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities. The written history of Madagascar began with

3045-422: The rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests , spiny forests , and deserts and xeric shrublands . Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from

3150-433: The trans-Atlantic slave trade . The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia . Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury , whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. European accounts until

3255-544: The "eighth continent", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot. Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries . The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Madagascar lowland forests , Madagascar subhumid forests , Madagascar dry deciduous forests , Madagascar ericoid thickets , Madagascar spiny forests , Madagascar succulent woodlands , and Madagascar mangroves . More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in

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3360-617: The Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam , the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe ), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements. European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada of

3465-576: The Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria. The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims. Under colonial rule, plantations were established for

3570-442: The Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills. Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of

3675-543: The Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings. The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in

3780-590: The absolute power of the monarch. Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, Rasoherina , the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony , who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II and Queen Ranavalona III in succession. Over

3885-557: The adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960. Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana , was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around

3990-428: The afternoon, a massive crowd armed with guns and swords attempted to storm the Rova of Antananarivo , residence of Queen Rasoherina. Disgraced former Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony was believed to be the chief instigator of the action as he would have re-established himself as prime minister and ruled through young Rasata's puppet government. The rebel group successfully captured a number of key figures, including

4095-663: The army and influential leader among the andriana . The queen addressed the public at Andohalo, first releasing zebu into the crowd for public consumption in a bid to ensure popular approval of the transition, then announcing the deposition of Rainivoninahitriniony in favor of Rainilaiarivony , relieving the Prime Minister of his post and stripping him of his ranks on July 14, 1864. He was consequently sent into exile in Ambohimandroso , in Betsileo country, on February 20, 1865. In

4200-643: The attack and went on to live to old age as a regular citizen were in fact true. The conspirators decided to transfer the crown to Radama's apparent widow Rabodo, on the condition that power would be henceforth shared jointly between the monarchy and the nobles, symbolically represented in Rainivoninahitriniony's marriage in September 1863 to Rabodo, who took the throne name Queen Rasoherina . Under Rasoherina 's reign, Rainivoninahitriniony effectively operated unhindered in his running of state affairs. At court,

4305-474: The basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War . At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority

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4410-404: The beginning of Rasoherina's reign was Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony , instigator of the coup against her husband. The Prime Minister entered into a political marriage with Rasoherina a few weeks after the crowning. Rainivoninahitriniony effectively operated unhindered in his running of state affairs at court where the conservative faction empowered under Ranavalona I was still active under

4515-418: The capital, although rumors to this end were never proven to be true at the time, and the evolution of life at court pursued its course as if Radama had died. The day of his believed death in 1863, the council of Hova government officials responsible for organizing the coup, headed by the brothers Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony , invited Rabodo to succeed to the throne on the condition that she sign

4620-429: The central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo. Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following almost

4725-530: The city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. Popular resistance to the French capture of Antananarivo —known as the Menalamba rebellion —broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897. France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving

4830-417: The city. At five in the evening, Rasoherina delivered a public address, asking those favorable to her rule to walk with her through the capital; a massive crowd paraded with her through the city, demonstrating their support for her continued authority. The queen then delivered a speech at Andohalo ordering the public to turn in any known conspirators to bring them to justice, before re-entering her residence at

4935-550: The class of Hova (freemen). Their family had gained a prominent position at court when Rainiharo's father was chosen by King Andrianampoinimerina to serve as a favored adviser on account of his keen acumen and unwavering loyalty. Throughout his childhood, Rainivoninahitriniony had access to the education provided by the Protestant missionaries of the London Missionary Society and was favorable to European influences and

5040-475: The coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna , including 17 species of giant lemurs , the large flightless elephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, Aepyornis maximus ), the giant fossa , and several species of Malagasy hippopotamus , which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction. By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing

5145-517: The coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten , a Dutch traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it. The name Malagasikara , or Malagascar ,

5250-564: The conservative faction was still present under the leadership of the former co-Prime Minister to Ranavalona I , Rainijohary. However, Rainivoninahitriniony's progressives formed a majority in the Queen's Council and their advocacy for a moderately pro-European policy of modernization won out over the reversal of the policies of Radama II that were demanded by Rainijohary's conservatives. His contemporary critics accused Rainivoninahitriniony of increasing despotism, habitual drunkenness and frequent violence as his power grew, reportedly threatening

5355-419: The country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique , located to the west. The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during

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5460-427: The country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972. Gabriel Ramanantsoa , a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava , appointed to succeed him,

5565-404: The course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government. Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity declared

5670-514: The early 20th century identified Malagasy people as being of Jewish origin . The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in

5775-466: The export of cattle. A treaty with France was under consideration during her reign but was not signed into effect until after her death and the succession of Ranavalona II to the throne. In the final days of the queen's life, a succession conspiracy came to light that would have removed Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony from power and ensured the succession of a prince named Rasata to the throne upon Rasoherina's death. On Friday, 27 March 1868, at two in

5880-482: The final months of his life, Rainivoninahitriniony is believed to have participated in an attempted coup against the administration of his brother and the queen. On Friday, March 27, 1868, at two in the afternoon, a massive crowd armed with guns and swords attempted to storm the seat of government at the Rova of Antananarivo in the interest of exerting control over the succession of the queen, who had been growing ever weaker from dysentery since October 1867. The leaders of

5985-412: The first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it Madagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser. Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of Mogadishu and Adal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on

6090-594: The first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president. In June 2019 parliamentary elections the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as

6195-506: The forests of the central highlands. Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries. A wave of Bantu -speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000. Around this time, zebu from South India were first brought, intermingling with sanga found in East Africa. Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout

6300-410: The group successfully captured a number of key figures, including the head of the Queen's Guard. A group of guards, however, managed to escape and raced to notify Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony , who was visiting the countryside estate where Queen Rasoherina was convalescing. The Prime Minister gave the order to arrest the conspirators, several of whom were promptly captured upon the soldiers' return to

6405-581: The growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community . A period of provisional government ended with

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6510-403: The head of the Queen's Guard; a group of guards, however, managed to escape and raced to notify Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony who was visiting Ambohimanga where Queen Rasoherina was gravely ill from dysentery . The Prime Minister gave the order to arrest the conspirators, several of whom were promptly captured upon the soldiers' return to the city. At five in the evening, Rasoherina delivered

6615-654: The heavy precipitation supports the area's rainforest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island. Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life. In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless and caused more than US$ 250 million in damage. In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed 121 people, weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on

6720-465: The high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains. The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive cyclones , and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast;

6825-512: The initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM

6930-481: The international community deemed fair and transparent. In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in

7035-477: The island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as

7140-449: The island earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported. However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. (See History of Madagascar ). Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE. Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear

7245-499: The island. A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change , are going to be high. As a result of the island's long isolation from neighbouring continents, Madagascar is home to various endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic . This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as

7350-400: The king. Tension between the nobles and the king came to a head when Radama refused to reconsider his decision legalizing duels . The nobles, under the leadership of Rainivoninahitriniony, conspired to assassinate the king . At the time, the coup was generally believed to have been successful, although 20th-century evidence suggests the rumors at the time that Radama had actually survived

7455-648: The land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on

7560-559: The leadership of her former prime minister, Rainijohary. However, Rainivoninahitriniony's progressives formed a majority in the Queen's Council and their advocacy for a moderately pro-European policy of modernization won out over the reversal of the policies of Radama II that were demanded by Rainijohary's conservatives. However, Rainivoninahitriniony became increasingly despotic and exhibited habitual drunkenness and frequent violence as his power grew, reportedly threatening Queen Rasoherina at knife point on several occasions. One year after taking

7665-486: The length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest . To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands , traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo , are

7770-492: The majority of the population. As of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is considered to be multidimensionally poor . In the Malagasy language , the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara ( Malagasy pronunciation: [madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥] ) and its people are referred to as Malagasy . The origin of the name is uncertain, and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the Middle Ages by Europeans. If this

7875-503: The medieval Hereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar. Another hypothesis is that Madagascar is a corrupted transliteration of Mogadishu , the capital of Somalia and an important medieval Indian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of Madageiscar to the south of Socotra . This name would then have been popularized on Renaissance maps by Europeans. One of

7980-575: The modernization of Madagascar. As a young man, Rainivoninahitriniony became a Field Marshal in the army of Queen Ranavalona I , where he was best known for putting down a revolt of the Antefasy and Antesaka in the southeast of the island in 1852. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the army from 1852 to 1862, as well as Minister for War (1861–62) and Minister for the Interior (1862), being awarded 14 state honors in 1861 and 15 honors in 1862. Upon his father's death in 1852, Rainivoninahitriniony succeeded to

8085-438: The monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert , a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and an alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end

8190-480: The most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast. Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs : Maromokotro 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in

8295-599: The most numerous being the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles . The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the annexation by France , from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as

8400-508: The nation's broken economy. Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010). The new Madagascar constitution established

8505-423: The neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century. The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called

8610-430: The official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace. Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions. Primarily on

8715-409: The old guard of conservatives who had supported her regressive policies were sidelined by her progressive son and successor Radama II . The new king favored the counsel of his entourage of young friends, known as the menamaso ("red-eyes"), to the point of undermining Rainivoninahitriniony's authority as Prime Minister - a position he now held alone after the dismissal of Rainijohary. At the same time,

8820-457: The period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand . It is proposed that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javan and Sumatran - Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar. Dates of settlement of

8925-418: The political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana

9030-449: The position of prime minister. He advised Queen Ranavalona I and conducted the administrative business of the state jointly with another of the Queen's long-standing advisers, a conservative elder named Rainijohary. Rainivoninahitriniony gained notice for his talents as an administrator and for his ability to work in the best interests of the State. With the death of Ranavalona in 1861, many of

9135-407: The production of a variety of export crops. Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today. Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and

9240-427: The queen at knifepoint on several occasions. Rainivoninahitriniony's involvement in the regicide plot had made him deeply unpopular among the people, and his excesses turned the opinion of many nobles against him. His fate was sealed during a visit to Ambohimanga when, upon receiving the names of individuals accused of intentionally setting a series of house fires that had ravaged Antananarivo , he sought to ensure

9345-401: The rapid arrest and execution of the accused conspirators. Rasoherina opposed these executions, however, sparking Rainivoninahitriniony's anger and prompting him to declare violent threats to her sovereignty. Immediately afterward, Rasoherina set about to remove Rainivoninahitriniony from power with the support of Rainivoninahitriniony's younger brother Rainilaiarivony , Commander-in-Chief of

9450-427: The role of Rainivoninahitriniony in the coup against Rasoherina were proposed although the truth was never confirmed. One theory offered that Rainivoninahitriniony had intended to establish a republic in Madagascar with himself as its president. An alternate and more probable theory maintained that Rainivoninahitriniony had formed an alliance with Protestant leaders who wished to see a male prince named Rasata placed on

9555-593: The route to the palace were reportedly all ordered shut, either to protect the Queen from projectiles or to keep the nobles inhabiting the upper town from viewing the advanced state of her infirmity. The queen died four days later, on 1 April 1868. On her deathbed, she was received into the Roman Catholic Church and conferred the care of her two orphaned adoptive children, Prince Ratahiry and Princess Rasoaveromanana, to her first cousin and successor, Ramoma, another of Radama II's wives, who would succeed her and take

9660-525: The state. Christianity is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practising traditional faiths . Madagascar is classified as a least developed country by the UN. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for

9765-502: The surviving lemur species. Rainivoninahitriniony#Downfall and death Born in 1824, Rainivoninahitriniony was known in childhood as Raharo. He and his younger brother Rainilaiarivony were sons of Rainiharo , of the Tsimiamboholahy clan, Prime Minister to Queen Ranavalona I from 1833 to 1852. His mother was Rabodomiarana , a daughter of Ramamonjy . Their family were not andriana (nobles) by blood but rather belonged to

9870-447: The territory. William Ellis of the London Missionary Society described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856 . The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of

9975-465: The throne name Ranavalona II . Madagascar Madagascar , officially the Republic of Madagascar , is an island country comprising the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa , it is the world's fourth largest island , the second-largest island country and the 46th largest country in the world. Its capital and largest city

10080-422: The throne, Rasoherina deposed Rainivoninahitriniony , appointed his younger brother Rainilaiarivony as prime minister in his stead and contracted a political marriage with him in turn. During the reign of Queen Rasoherina, ambassadors were sent to London and Paris and Sunday markets were prohibited. The controversial Lambert Charter enacted by Radama II was declared void, much to the displeasure of France;

10185-561: The world, including five plant families. The family Didiereaceae , composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island. Three-fourths of Madagascar's 860 orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine baobab species. The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic. Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for

10290-419: Was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history. At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi), Madagascar is the world's 46th largest country , the second-largest island country and the fourth-largest island . The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S , and longitudes 43°E and 51°E . Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and

10395-460: Was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression. The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I . In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed

10500-475: Was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of

10605-605: Was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from

10710-520: Was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption. Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina , led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état . In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of

10815-421: Was crowned with him as queen consort . Rasoherina acted as queen consort for only two years before her husband's political decisions succeeded in displeasing his ministers to such an extent that a coup was organized in which Radama II was believed assassinated . A study conducted in the 1960s provides evidence that Radama in fact survived the assassination attempt and lived to old age as a regular citizen outside

10920-431: Was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa . Upon reaching

11025-442: Was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron , David Jones and David Griffiths , who established schools, transcribed

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