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69-489: Oral history attributes numerous significant and lasting political and cultural innovations to King Ralambo. He is credited with popularizing the consumption of beef in the Kingdom of Imerina and celebrating this discovery with the establishment of the fandroana New Year's festival which traditionally took place on the day of Ralambo's birth. According to legend, circumcision and polygamy were also introduced under his rule, as

138-430: A bonfire by Queen Ranavalona II upon her public conversion to Christianity in 1869. Ralambo is believed to have died around 1612. He was buried in the traditional stone tomb of his grandfather, King Rabiby, which still stands at the highland village of Ambohidrabiby. According to a 19th-century source, his death was mourned for a full year. His burial reportedly took place at night and a royal mausoleum ( trano masina )

207-509: A demonstration of royal power by appropriating the local tradition of sampy (talismans), previously created by village chiefs and others for personal or local spiritual ends, restricting their number to twelve and declaring their creation a strictly royal prerogative. The king also imposed an intimidating change to the traditional form of justice, the trial by ordeal: Andrianjaka ordered that rather than administering tangena poison to an accused person's rooster to determine their innocence by

276-411: A distinct personality—and offered their own house with guardians dedicated to their service. Ralambo amassed twelve of the most reputed and powerful sampy from neighboring communities. He furthermore transformed the nature of the relationship between sampy and ruler: whereas previously the sampy had been seen as tools at the disposal of community leaders, under Ralambo they became divine protectors of

345-500: A man named Andriamandritany, was sent to the Vazimba king to invite him to participate in a contest of superiority against Ralambo. While Andrianafovaratra traveled to join Ralambo for the competition, Andriamandritany set fire to the Vazimba capital of Imerinkasinina. The Vazimba king saw the smoke and began to hasten back to the village but was captured in an ambush laid by Ralambo's troops and

414-406: A royal fortified compound ( rova ) on the hilltop as the capitol of a new town at the site which he named Antananarivo ("the city of the thousand") in honor of the thousand soldiers who aided in capturing and protecting the hill. He reportedly succeeded with minimal bloodshed: according to oral history, the encampment of his army at the foot of Analamanga was sufficient to secure the submission of

483-471: A sizable cache of firearms and gunpowder, materials that helped to establish and preserve his dominance and expand his rule over greater Imerina. Many of the cultural practices that were to define Merina social and political life for centuries are credited to Andrianjaka. He designated the twelve sacred hills of Imerina that were to become the spiritual and political heartland of the Merina empire, contributing to

552-409: A wild zebu so exceptionally fat that the king decided to make a burnt offering of it. As the zebu flesh cooked, the enticing smell led Ralambo to taste the meat. He declared zebu meat to be fit for human consumption. In honor of the discovery, he decided to establish a holiday called fandroana that would be distinguished by the consumption of well-fattened zebu meat. The holiday was to be celebrated on

621-407: A wild zebu so exceptionally fat that the king decided to make a burnt offering of it. As the zebu flesh cooked, the enticing smell led Ralambo to taste the meat. He declared zebu meat to be fit for human consumption. In honor of the discovery, he decided to establish a holiday called fandroana that would be distinguished by the consumption of well-fattened zebu meat. The holiday was to be celebrated on

690-421: Is Andriantompokoindrindra (not Andrianjaka) who was said to be preoccupied with the fanorona game —a version in keeping with the oral tradition that credits him with the game's invention and popularization at court —and his refusal to return to his father until after the game had finished led Ralambo to choose Andrianjaka as his successor. One source states that the summons was not a test, but rather occurred during

759-456: Is also believed to have originated with this king. Ralambo is credited with introducing the tradition of polygamy in Imerina. The Merina legend of the origin of this practice was recorded in the 19th-century collection of Merina andriana oral history and genealogy entitled Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara . According to this source, Ralambo had already married once when his servant encountered

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828-444: Is likewise credited with founding the traditional ceremony of the fandroana (the "Royal Bath"), although others have suggested he merely added certain practices to the celebration of a long-standing ritual. Among the Merina, legend characterizes the fandroana as a festival established by Ralambo to celebrate his culinary discovery. According to one version of the story, while traversing the countryside, Radama and his men came across

897-579: The Ikopa river attempted to attack the village of Ambohibaoladina, Ralambo so frightened the warriors with the noise of a single shotgun blast that every warrior ran into the Ikopa river and drowned. Imposing a capitation tax for the first time (the vadin-aina , or "price of secure life"), he was able to establish the first standing Merina royal army and established units of blacksmiths and silversmiths to equip them. He famously repelled an attempted invasion by an army of

966-567: The Malayo-Polynesian tongue from which it derived. A popular legend imbues the birth of Ralambo with a mystical character. The legend relates that his mother, who was known in her youth as Ramaitsoanala ("Green Forest"), was the daughter of the Vazimba water goddess Ivorombe ("Great Bird"). With the assistance of her celestial mother, Ramaitsoanala confronted and overcame numerous obstacles. After her marriage to Andriamanelo (whereupon she assumed

1035-605: The Royal Bath by 19th century European historians, is the annual New Year's festival of the Merina people inhabiting the highlands of central Madagascar . The origins of the festival are preserved through oral history. According to folk legend, the wild zebu cattle that roamed the Highlands were first domesticated for food in Imerina under the reign of Ralambo . Different legends attribute

1104-457: The fandroana by carrying lighted torches and lanterns in a nighttime processional through their villages. The zebu meat eaten over the course of the festival was primarily grilled or consumed as jaka , a preparation reserved uniquely for this holiday. Jaka was prepared during the festival by sealing shredded zebu meat with suet in a decorative clay jar; this confit would then be conserved in an underground pit for twelve months to be served at

1173-515: The 19th-century transcription of Merina oral history, offers an account of the idols' introduction into Imerina. According to legend, one day during Ralambo's reign a woman named Kalobe arrived in Imerina carrying a small object wrapped in banana leaves and grass. She had traveled from her village located at Isondra in Betsileo country to the south which had been destroyed by fire, walking the great distance and traveling only at night in order to deliver to

1242-531: The Rova of Antananarivo were preserved and maintained over the centuries by successive generations of Merina sovereigns, imbuing the structures with deep symbolic and spiritual meaning. As Andrianjaka's residence, the Besakana was particularly significant: the original building was torn down and reconstructed in the same design by Andriamasinavalona around 1680, and again by Andrianampoinimerina in 1800, each of whom inhabited

1311-401: The Vazimba. Andrianjaka made Antananarivo the capital of his realm. From his position atop Analamanga, he was well-placed to exert control over the vast plains of Betsimitatatra below. Under his command the plains were gradually transformed into vast, surplus-producing rice paddies. This feat was accomplished by mobilizing large numbers of his able-bodied subjects to construct dikes that enabled

1380-476: The aforementioned incident when Ralambo was besieged in his capital by the Antsihanaka warriors and was genuinely in need of his sons' assistance. It is generally accepted by historians that Andrianjaka did indeed succeed to the throne around 1610 or 1612 after his older brother's claim was rejected by the public. All speculation about fanorona and royal summons aside, Ralambo may have chosen Andrianjaka based on

1449-458: The beautiful princess Rafotsimarobavina and four female companions gathering edible greens in a valley west of Ambohidrabiby. Upon hearing of her beauty, Ralambo instructed the servant to make her a marriage offer on his behalf. The servant asked three times, and each time the princess refused to give her consent, instead replying "If Ralambo is king and I am queen." The fourth time, after Ralambo had instructed his servant to carry her to him by force,

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1518-532: The building in turn as their personal residence. King Radama I likewise inhabited the building for much of his time at the Rova, and in 1820 he designated the building as the first site to house what came to be known as the Palace School , the first formal European-style school in Imerina. Sovereigns were enthroned in this building and their mortal remains were displayed here before burial, rendering Besakana "the official state room for civil affairs... regarded as

1587-434: The burial and mourning of sovereigns are also traced back to Andrianjaka's reign. Andrianjaka was the second son of Ralambo , ruler of the Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands of Madagascar. As a young man, Andrianjaka married Ravadifo, a daughter of Prince Andriampanarivomanjaka. The marriage produced one daughter and one son, Andriantsitakatrandriana , who would rule after his father from 1630 to 1650. Andrianjaka

1656-421: The central highlands region of Madagascar from around 1612 to 1630. Despite being the younger of King Ralambo 's two sons, Andrianjaka succeeded to the throne on the basis of his strength of character and skill as a military tactician. The most celebrated accomplishment of his reign was the capture of the hill of Analamanga from a Vazimba king. There he established the fortified compound ( rova ) that would form

1725-404: The creature's survival, the poison would instead be ingested by the accused himself. Around 1610 or 1625 according to various estimations, Andrianjaka commanded a garrison of 1,000 soldiers to seize the hill of Analamanga ("Blue Forest")—at 1,480 metres (4,860 ft) above sea level, then the highest and most strategically important in the region —from its Vazimba inhabitants. He constructed

1794-541: The day of his birth, which coincided with the first day of the year. To this end, the holiday symbolically represented a community-wide renewal that would take place over a period of several days before and after the first of the year. Although the precise form of the original holiday cannot be known with certainty and has evolved over time, 18th- and 19th-century accounts suggest what the event may have been like. Accounts from these centuries indicate that all family members were required to reunite in their home villages during

1863-415: The day of his birth, which coincided with the first day of the year. To this end, the holiday symbolically represented a community-wide renewal that would take place over a period of several days before and after the first of the year. Although the precise form of the original holiday cannot be known with certainty and its traditions have evolved over time, 18th- and 19th-century accounts provide insight into

1932-400: The development of Merina cultural identity. Born in the sacred highland village of Alasora to King Andriamanelo and Queen Randapavola, Ralambo was the only one of his parents' children to survive to adulthood. According to one legend, as a child he may have been known by the name Rabiby, being given the name Ralambo after successfully killing a particularly ferocious wild boar ( lambo ) in

2001-409: The discovery that zebu were edible to the king's servant or to Ralambo himself. Ralambo is credited with founding the traditional ceremony of the fandroana to celebrate this discovery, although others have suggested he merely added certain practices to the celebration of a long-standing ritual. According to one version of the story, while traversing the countryside Ralambo and his men came across

2070-416: The egg was thrown and hit a warrior in the head, killing him on contact; his corpse fell onto another warrior and killed him, and this corpse fell onto another and so forth, until the warriors had all been destroyed, forevermore confirming the power of Kelimalaza as the protector of the kingdom in the minds of the Merina populace. Similarly, at the besieged Imerina village of Ambohimanambola, invoking Kelimalaza

2139-404: The eldest of whom, Andriantompokoindrindra, was passed over for Ralambo's succession in favor of his second son, Andrianjaka . Ralambo expanded and defended his realm through a combination of diplomacy and successful military action aided by the procurement of the first firearms in Imerina by way of trade with kingdoms on the coast. According to legend, when a group of warriors from a village near

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2208-413: The establishment of a royal tradition maintaining that all reigning descendants of Andrianjaka would henceforth be required to marry a princess directly descended from Andriantompokoindrindra, thereby preserving the royal status of descendants in both brothers' bloodlines. Andrianjaka moved his capital from Ambohidrabiby to Ambohimanga upon ascending to the throne around 1610 or 1612. He was reportedly

2277-423: The establishment of the kingdom's traditional boundaries; clans were assigned to specific regions within his kingdom, further defining the cultural landscape. He consolidated power through such measures as appropriating the folk tradition of sampy (community talismans), thereby ensuring all the powers traditionally attributed to these idols were under the control of the sovereign alone. Merina traditions related to

2346-523: The eve of the fandroana (characterized by early 19th-century British missionaries as an "orgy") and the following morning's return to rigid social order with the sovereign firmly at the helm of the kingdom. On this morning, the first day of the year, a red rooster was traditionally sacrificed and its blood used to anoint the sovereign and others present at the ceremony. Afterward the sovereign would bathe in sanctified water, then sprinkle it upon attendees to purify and bless them and ensure an auspicious start to

2415-435: The festival as it was practiced at that time. Accounts from these centuries indicate that all family members were required to reunite in their home villages during the festival period. Estranged family members were expected to attempt to reconcile. Homes were cleaned and repaired and new housewares and clothing were purchased. The symbolism of renewal was particularly embodied in the traditional sexual permissiveness encouraged on

2484-431: The festival period. Estranged family members were expected to attempt to reconcile. Homes were cleaned and repaired and new housewares and clothing were purchased. The symbolism of renewal was particularly embodied in the traditional sexual permissiveness encouraged on the eve of the fandroana (characterized by early 19th-century British missionaries as an "orgy") and the following morning's return to rigid social order with

2553-529: The first Merina leader to receive Europeans around 1620 and traded slaves in exchange for guns and other firearms to aid in the pacification of rival principalities, obtaining 50 guns and three barrels of gunpowder to equip his army. He unified the principalities on what he later designated as the twelve sacred hills of Imerina at Ambohitratrimo, Ambohimanga, Ilafy, Alasora, Antsahadita, Ambohimanambony, Analamanga, Ambohitrabiby, Namehana, Ambohidrapeto, Ambohijafy, and Ambohimandranjaka. These hills became and remain

2622-484: The heart of his new capital city of Antananarivo . Upon his orders, the first structures within this fortified compound (known as the Rova of Antananarivo ) were constructed: several traditional royal houses were built, and plans for a series of royal tombs were designed. These buildings took on an enduring political and spiritual significance, ensuring their preservation until being destroyed by fire in 1995. Andrianjaka obtained

2691-465: The king what she called Kelimalaza ("the Little Famous One"), giving the impression that it was no less than the greatest treasure in the land. Ralambo took the sampy and built a house for it in a nearby village. He then selected a group of adepts who were to study under Kalobe to learn the mysteries of Kelimalaza. Oral history maintains that Kalobe was "made to disappear" after the adepts' training

2760-403: The king. Soon thereafter, two more houses were constructed; Andrianjaka also designated the construction space and design for a row of royal tombs. In keeping with Merina aristocratic tradition, each structure in the compound was given a name. The row of tombs was named Fitomiandalana ("Seven Aligned Tombs"), Andrianjaka's own tomb being the first of these constructed. According to one account,

2829-468: The leader's sovereignty and the integrity of the state which would be preserved through their power on the condition that the line of sovereigns ensured the sampy were shown the respect due to them. By collecting the twelve greatest sampy—twelve being a sacred number in Merina cosmology—and transforming their nature, Ralambo strengthened the supernatural power and legitimacy of the royal line of Imerina. The Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara ,

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2898-409: The name Queen Randapavola), one of these obstacles took the form of reproductive difficulties: six consecutive times Randapavola miscarried or lost her children in infancy. When she was pregnant with her seventh child, the queen was especially afraid for her unborn child because the number seven was traditionally associated with death. This time, Randapavola sought the guidance of an astrologer to protect

2967-572: The next year's fandroana . In November 1943, a fandroana was held in Toulouse by the authorities of Vichy France . The Chef d'état Philippe Pétain was dressed as a Merina king and received a wooden zebu sculpture from the tirailleurs malgaches (Malagasy soldiers) stranded in France after the British invasion of Madagascar . Andrianjaka Andrianjaka reigned over the Kingdom of Imerina in

3036-550: The next year's fandroana. Amulets and idols fashioned from assorted natural materials have occupied an important place among many ethnic groups of Madagascar for centuries. Ody , personal amulets believed to protect or allocate powers to the wearer, were commonplace objects possessed by anyone from slave children to kings. The name sampy was given to those amulets that, while physically indistinguishable from ody, were distinct in that their powers extended over an entire community. The sampy were often personified—complete with

3105-419: The powerful western coastal Betsimisaraka people at a site now known as Mandamako ("Lazy") at Androkaroka, north of Alasora. The Betsimisaraka traditionally only fought at night and so were found asleep in their camp by Ralambo and his men and were easily vanquished. In another famous incident, Ralambo's army set a trap for a Vazimba king named Andrianafovaratra who claimed to control thunder. Ralambo's emissary,

3174-457: The powers and protection their communal sampy offered them. These lesser sampy were destroyed or reduced to the status of ody (personal talismans) by the end of the reign of Ralambo's son, Andrianjaka, officially leaving only twelve truly powerful sampy (known as the sampin'andriana : the "Royal Sampy") which were all in the possession of the king. These royal sampy, including Kelimalaza , continued to be worshiped until their supposed destruction in

3243-462: The princess agreed to marry on the condition that it be done properly with the consent of her parents, a condition to which the king agreed. Ralambo then informed his first wife of his intention to marry again, to which she replied, "I approve your decision," and the marriage was made. Ralambo ultimately took four wives in total: Rafotsitohina, Rafotsiramarobavina, Ratsitohinina and Rafotsindrindra. These marriages produced three daughters and twelve sons,

3312-401: The redirection of rainwater for controlled flooding of planted areas. Andrianjaka's fortified compound came to be known as the Rova of Antananarivo and constituted the heart of his newly founded city of Antananarivo. Prior to Andrianjaka's rule, Merina sovereigns shifted their capital from one town to another, but with the establishment of the rova on the peak of Analamanga hill, Antananarivo

3381-416: The royal messenger until after the game was over. During this delay, his older brother Andriantompokoindrindra received his father's message and rushed home; he was thus awarded Ralambo's title and kingdom. However, this tale continues, Andriantompokoindrindra's claim to power was rejected by the public, and he was soon forced to cede the throne to Andrianjaka. In an alternate account of the succession tale, it

3450-406: The simple fact that he was the son of Ralambo's first wife. Ralambo's father, Andriamanelo , had established rules of succession by which Ralambo's first son by his first wife must rule after his father in order to fulfill a mandate established by his Vazimba antecedents Rafohy and Rangita . The passing over of Andriantompokoindrindra in favor of his younger brother was partially mitigated by

3519-402: The sovereign firmly at the helm of the kingdom. On this morning, the first day of the year, a red rooster was traditionally sacrificed and its blood used to anoint the sovereign and others present at the ceremony. Afterward the sovereign would bathe in sanctified water, then sprinkle it upon attendees to purify and bless them and ensure an auspicious start to the year. Children would celebrate

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3588-603: The sovereignty of the king from rivals and became the favorite of Ralambo, who kept it always near him. Afterward came Rafantaka, believed to protect against injury and death; others followed, all of Antaimoro origin with the possible exception of Mosasa, which had come from the Tanala forest people to the east. The propagation of similar sampy at the service of less powerful citizens consequently increased throughout Imerina under Ralambo's rule: nearly every village chief, as well as many common families, had one in their possession and claimed

3657-434: The spiritual heart of Imerina, which was further expanded over a century later when Andrianampoinimerina redesignated the twelve sacred hills to include several different sites. His policies and tactics highlighted and increased the separation between the king and his subjects. Andrianjaka transformed social divisions into spatial divisions by assigning each clan to a specific geographical region within his kingdom. He made

3726-510: The throne of the Kingdom of Imerina. According to popular legend, Ralambo devised a test to determine which of his two sons was most fit to rule: he would summon them both to join him at his capital in Ambohidrabiby, and whichever of his two sons reached him soonest would inherit his kingdom. In one account of this legend, Andrianjaka was reportedly engrossed in strategizing a win in a difficult game of fanorona and so refused to admit audience to

3795-531: The throne of the kingdom." The rule of Andrianjaka continued uninterrupted until his death at the Rova of Antananarivo around 1630. He was the first king to be buried on the grounds of the Rova, his tomb forming the first of the Fitomiandalana. To commemorate his greatness, his subjects erected a small wooden house called a trano masina on top of his tomb. Future Merina sovereigns and nobles continued to construct similar tomb houses on their tombs well into

3864-468: The town's hadivory (defensive trenches) with cow dung and rice husks, lighting it on fire, and covering the smoldering embers with burnt rice stalks so that the area resembled a patch of land recently re-cleared for planting through tavy ( slash and burn agriculture). The enemy troops reportedly marched into the trap, sinking into the embers and burning or suffocating to death. Oral history provides two different accounts of Andrianjaka's succession to

3933-505: The transoceanic origins of the Malagasy people. There, Randapavola took the name Rasolobe upon delivering a healthy son, Ralambo, on the first day of the first month of the year ( Alahamady ), the most auspicious date for the birth of a sovereign. Ralambo's many enduring and significant political and cultural achievements of his reign have earned him a heroic and near mythical status among the greatest ancient sovereigns of Merina history. Ralambo

4002-400: The unborn child from an evil fate. On his advice she chose to defy the tradition of delivering the baby at her parents' home village of Ambohidrabiby , rather choosing the village of Alasora, to the north of Antananarivo , because this cardinal direction embodied great power. According to the tale, the queen gave birth in a house built to resemble a boat (called a kisambosambo ) evocative of

4071-480: The very first royal house constructed within the Rova of Antananarivo was named Besakana ("Great Breadth") and served as the personal residence of Andrianjaka. This account is contradicted by another source that states the second and third houses were called Masoandrotsiroa and Besakana, with the latter again characterized as Andrianjaka's personal residence, leaving the precise origins of Besakana unclear. The Besakana, Masoandrotsiroa and Fitomiandalana structures at

4140-427: The woods. Another story attributes his name to a wild boar that walked past the threshold of the house where his mother was resting shortly after giving birth to him. However, both of these explanations are likely to have originated at some point after his reign; it is more probable that he took the name Ralambo after propagating the consumption of the meat of the zebu , called lambo in the proto- Malagasy language and

4209-492: The year. Children would celebrate the fandroana by carrying lighted torches and lanterns in a nighttime processional through their villages. The zebu meat eaten over the course of the festival was primarily grilled or consumed as jaka , a preparation reserved uniquely for this holiday. This delicacy was made during the festival by sealing shredded zebu meat with suet in a decorative clay jar. The confit would then be conserved in an underground pit for twelve months to be served at

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4278-473: Was also actively involved in providing support to his father's military campaigns to expand and defend Ralambo's realm. Oral history describes an incident wherein Andrianjaka and Ralambo were engaged in the defense of Ralambo's capital at Ambohidrabiby , which was threatened by the advance of Antsihanaka warriors. Andrianjaka reportedly suggested an innovative defensive tactic to annihilate the enemy by filling

4347-407: Was completed in order to prevent her from absconding with the precious idol. Not long after, the legend continues, a group of Sakalava (or, by some accounts, Vazimba) warriors were preparing to attack a village north of Alasora called Ambohipeno. Ralambo announced that it would be sufficient to throw a rotten egg at the warriors, and Kelimalaza would take care of the rest. According to oral history,

4416-414: Was constructed over his tomb, a royal Merina tradition that would continue until the collapse of the 19th century Kingdom of Madagascar . The rules of succession established by Andriamanelo obliged Ralambo to pass over his eldest son (by his second wife) in favor of the succession of Andrianjaka , his younger son by his first wife, Rafotsindrindramanjaka. Fandroana The Fandroana , termed

4485-445: Was forced to exile himself in the forests far to the east. According to oral history, the wild zebu cattle that roamed the Highlands were first domesticated for food in Imerina under the reign of Ralambo. Different legends attribute the discovery that zebu were edible to the king's servant or to Ralambo himself. Ralambo disseminated this discovery throughout his realm, as well as the practice and design of cattle pen construction. Ralambo

4554-462: Was said to have produced a massive hailstorm that wiped out the enemy warriors. The honored place that Ralambo awarded to Kelimalaza encouraged others like Kalobe to bring their own sampy to Ralambo from neighboring lands where they had been introduced long before by the Antaimoro . First after Kelimalaza was Ramahavaly, said to control snakes and repel attacks. The next arrival, Manjakatsiroa, protected

4623-403: Was the division of the noble class ( andriana ) into four sub-castes. Oral history furthermore traces the tradition of royal idols ( sampy ) in Imerina to the reign of Ralambo, who made heavy use of these supernatural objects to expand his realm and consolidate the divine nature of his sovereignty. Due to the enduring cultural legacy left by this king, Ralambo is often considered a key figure in

4692-656: Was the first to assign the name of Imerina ("Land of the Merina people ") to the central highland territories where he ruled. He moved his capital from Alasora to Ambohidrabiby, location of the former capital of his maternal grandfather King Rabiby. The first sub-divisions of the andriana noble caste were created when Ralambo split it into four ranks. He introduced the traditions of circumcision and family intermarriage (such as between parent and step-child, or between half-siblings) among Merina nobles, these practices having already existed among certain other Malagasy ethnic groups. The practice of sanctifying deceased Merina sovereigns

4761-406: Was to become the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina (and, ultimately, the 19th-century Kingdom of Madagascar ) for generations of Merina sovereigns. The heart of the town was built in stages: first, the army cleared the forest covering the hill's summit and constructed the rova compound to serve as an initial garrison enclosing a traditional-style wooden house ( lapa ) that served as a residence for

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