Johann Josef Wenzel Anton Franz Karl, Graf Radetzky von Radetz (2 November 1766 – 5 January 1858) was a Czech nobleman and Austrian field marshal. He served as chief of the general staff in the Habsburg monarchy during the later period of the Napoleonic Wars and proved instrumental in the allied victory as one of the primary architects of the Trachenberg Plan and the Leipzig Campaign. Afterwards, he embarked on military reforms of the Austrian army. His reputation was one of discipline and fairness; he was revered by his troops among whom he was known as Vater ('Father') Radetzky. He is best known for the victories at the Battles of Custoza (24–25 July 1848) and Novara (23 March 1849) during the First Italian War of Independence . Johann Strauss I 's Radetzky March was commissioned to commemorate Radetzky's victories at the Battle of Custoza .
83-480: Radetzky, a titled Graf ('Count'), was born into a noble Bohemian military family of Czech origin at Chateau Třebnice ( German : Trebnitz ) near Sedlčany in Bohemia (now part of the town). His father, Count Peter Eusebius Radetzky von Radetz (1732-1766) died shortly after his birth, while his mother, Baroness Marie Venantia Anna Barbara Josepha Bechinie von Lažan [ de ] (1738-1772), died while he
166-593: A few hussars, he rescued Beaulieu from the enemy. Promoted to major, Radetzky was made head of the pioneer corps, a unit responsible for road and bridge building which he transformed into one of the most elite units in the army. He took part in Dagobert Wurmser 's Siege of Mantua campaign, which ended in the fall of that fortress. During the four and a half month siege, Radetzky impressed everyone with his determination and defensive tactics, leading sorties and erecting defensive fortifications at San Giorgio and in front of
249-434: A landgrave was a Landgräfin or landgravine. Examples: Landgrave of Thuringia , Landgrave of Hesse , Landgrave of Leuchtenberg , Landgrave of Fürstenberg-Weitra . The title is now borne by the hereditary heirs to the deposed monarchs of Hesse ( Donatus, Landgrave of Hesse and Wilhelm, Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld), who lost their throne in 1918. A gefürsteter Graf (English: princely count )
332-569: A longstanding romantic relationship with his Italian mistress, Giuditta Meregalli of Sesto San Giovanni. She was 40 years his junior and bore him four children, all of whom took his name and were recognized by Radetzky. Meregalli received extensive letters from him, written during his battles. He was a devout lifelong Roman Catholic . In 1795 Radetzky fought on the Rhine . The following year he served with Johann Beaulieu against Napoleon in Italy, but disliked
415-467: A number of small applied research institutes near the university campus. The city today is still growing, forming a twin city of 170,000 inhabitants together with its neighbouring Bavarian city of Neu-Ulm , and seems to benefit from its central position between the cities of Stuttgart and Munich and thus between the cultural and economic hubs of southern Germany. Ulm has a humid continental climate ( Köppen : Dfb ; Trewartha : Dcbo ). Compared with
498-695: Is a Reichsgraf who was recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor as bearing the higher rank or exercising the more extensive authority of an Imperial prince ( Reichsfürst ). While nominally retaining only a comital title, he was accorded princely rank and, usually, arms by the emperor. An example of this would be the Princely County of Habsburg , the namesake of the Habsburg Dynasty , which at various points in time controlled vast amounts of lands throughout Europe. A Burggraf , or Burgrave ,
581-712: Is almost completely surrounded by the Alb-Danube district. The neighbouring communes of Baden-Württemberg are the following: Illerkirchberg , Staig , Hüttisheim , Erbach (Donau) , Blaubeuren , Blaustein , Dornstadt , Beimerstetten and Langenau as well as the eastern neighbouring community Elchingen . The city is divided into 18 districts ( German : Stadtteile ): Ulm-Mitte, Böfingen, Donaustetten, Donautal, Eggingen, Einsingen, Ermingen, Eselsberg, Gögglingen, Grimmelfingen, Jungingen, Lehr, Mähringen, Oststadt, Söflingen (with Harthausen), Unterweiler, Weststadt, and Wiblingen. Nine districts were integrated during
664-455: Is also the seat of the city's University of Applied Sciences (German: Fachhochschule ), founded in 1960 as a public school of engineering. The school also houses numerous students from around the world as part of an international study abroad programme. In 1953, Inge Aicher-Scholl , Otl Aicher and Max Bill founded the Ulm School of Design (German: Hochschule für Gestaltung – HfG Ulm),
747-515: Is highly regarded as a brilliant field marshal, while some social historians consider his role as a viceroy as the point of no return in the troubled relationship between Austria and the Italian population. Radetzky was the namesake of several Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Navy warships, including the screw frigate SMS Radetzky , which fought Italy in the Third Italian War of Independence , and
830-669: Is linked to a specific countship, whose unique title emerged during the course of its history. These unusually named countships were equivalent in rank to other Counts of the Empire who were of Hochadel status, being entitled to a shared seat and vote in the Imperial Diet and possessing Imperial immediacy , most of which would be mediatised upon dissolution of the Empire in 1806. The corresponding titles in Scandinavia are greve (m.) and grevinna (f.) and would commonly be used in
913-549: Is the administrative seat of the Alb-Donau-Kreis , the district that surrounds it on three sides, but which the city itself is not a part of. Ulm is the overall 11th-largest city on the Danube River , and the third-largest German Danubian city after Regensburg and Ingolstadt . Founded around 850, Ulm is rich in history and traditions as a former free imperial city . Ulm is an economic centre due to its varied industries, and
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#1732858549974996-584: Is the seat of the University of Ulm ( Universität Ulm ), and of the Ulm University of Applied Sciences ( Technische Hochschule Ulm [ de ] , THU). The city lies on the international railway corridor " Main Line for Europe ", from Paris to Bratislava and Budapest , via Strasbourg , Karlsruhe , Stuttgart , Ulm, Augsburg , Munich , Salzburg , Linz and Vienna . The Ulm Minster ( Ulmer Münster )
1079-716: Is the tallest church in the world (161.53 m or 529.95 ft). In 1927, the then tiny village of Wiblingen was incorporated into Ulm, which led to that Wiblingen Abbey with its monastic library and its True Cross reliquary ( Heilig-Kreuz-Reliquie ), that allegedly contains wood particles from the True Cross , is now part of Ulm. Famous personalities born in Ulm include Johann Georg Niederegger [ de ] (1777–1859), Karl Heinrich Kässbohrer [ de ] (1864–1922), Albert Einstein (1879–1955), Otto Kässbohrer (1904–1989) and Hildegard Knef (1925–2002). Ulm lies at
1162-535: Is usually derived from Latin : graphio . Graphio is in turn thought to come from the Byzantine title grapheus , which ultimately derives from the Greek verb γρᾰ́φειν ( graphein ) 'to write'. Other explanations have been put forward, however; Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm , while still noting the potential of a Greek derivation, suggested a connection to Gothic : gagrêfts , meaning 'decision, decree'. However,
1245-762: Is usually translated simply as count and is combined with a territorial suffix (e.g., Count of Holland , Count Reuss ) or a surname ( Count Fugger , Count von Browne ). Even after the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Reichsgrafen retained precedence above other counts in Germany. Those who had been quasi-sovereign until German mediatisation retained, until 1918, status and privileges pertaining to members of reigning dynasties . Notable Reichsgrafen have included: A complete list of Reichsgrafen with immediate territories as of 1792 can be found in
1328-511: The Deichgraf (in a polder management organization). (incomplete) Ulm Ulm ( German pronunciation: [ʊlm] ) is the sixth-largest city of the southwestern German state of Baden-Württemberg , and with around 129,000 inhabitants, it is Germany's 60th-largest city . Ulm is located on the eastern edges of the Swabian Jura mountain range, on the upper course of
1411-639: The Graf long retained specific feudal privileges over the land and in the villages in his county, such as rights to peasant service, to periodic fees for use of common infrastructure such as timber, mills, wells and pastures. These rights gradually eroded and were largely eliminated before or during the 19th century, leaving the Graf with few legal privileges beyond land ownership, although comital estates in German-speaking lands were often substantial. Nonetheless, various rulers in German-speaking lands granted
1494-419: The Graf , or Gräfin , and the nobiliary particle if any. Today, having lost their legal status, these terms are often not translated, unlike before 1919. The titles do, however, retain prestige in some circles of society. The suffix -graf occurs in various office titles which did not attain nobiliary status but were either held as a sinecure by nobleman or courtiers, or functional officials such as
1577-507: The A7 motorway (one of the motorways running from northern to southern Europe). The city's railway station is served, among other lines, by one of the European train routes (Paris – Strasbourg – Stuttgart – Ulm – Munich – Vienna – Budapest ). Direct connections to Berlin are also available. Ulm's public transport system is based on several bus lines and two tram lines . Several streets in
1660-690: The Austro-Turkish War of 1787–1791, and in the Austrian Netherlands from 1792 to 1795. In 1798, he married Countess Franziska von Strassoldo-Grafenberg from Tržič , Carniola (now in Slovenia ). On her mother's side, she was a descendant of the Austrian House of Auersperg , which ruled one of the hereditary Habsburg duchies in what is now Slovenia. They had five sons and three daughters, only two of whom outlived their father. Radetzky also had
1743-451: The Baltic states and other former Habsburg crown lands . In Germany, all legal privileges of the nobility have been officially abolished since August 1919, and Graf , like any other hereditary title, is treated as part of the legal surname. In Austria, its use is banned by law, as with all hereditary titles and nobiliary particles . In Switzerland , the title is not acknowledged in law. In
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#17328585499741826-600: The Battle of Wagram . In 1810 he was created a Commander of the Order of Maria Theresa and became Inhaber of the 5th Radetzky Hussars . From 1809 to 1812, as chief of the general staff, he was active in reorganizing the army and its tactical system, but, unable to carry out the reforms he desired owing to the opposition of the Treasury, he resigned his position. In 1813 he was Schwarzenberg 's chief of staff and had considerable influence on
1909-497: The Congress of Vienna subordinated them to larger, neighboring monarchs through the German mediatisation process of 1815, preserving their precedence, allocating familial representation in local legislatures, some jurisdictional immunities and the prestigious privilege of Ebenbürtigkeit . In regions of Europe where nobles did not actually exercise Landeshoheit over the populace,
1992-451: The Duchy of Swabia . The city was declared an Imperial City (German: Reichsstadt ) by Friedrich Barbarossa in 1181. At first, Ulm's significance was due to the privilege of a Königspfalz , a place of accommodation for the medieval German kings and emperors on their frequent travels. Later, Ulm became a city of traders and craftsmen. One of the most important legal documents of
2075-539: The Holy Roman Emperor could and did recognise unique concessions of authority or rank to some of these nobles, raising them to the status of gefürsteter Graf or "princely count". But a grafliche title with such a prefix did not always signify a higher than comital rank or membership in the Hochadel . Only the more important of these titles, historically associated with degrees of sovereignty, remained in use by
2158-480: The Kingdom of Prussia from the 19th century, the title of Graf was not restricted by primogeniture : it was inherited by all legitimate descendants in the male line of the original titleholder, the males also inheriting an approximately equal share of the family's wealth and estates. Usually a hyphenated suffix indicated which of the familial lands a particular line of counts held, e.g. Castell-Rudenhausen . In
2241-464: The List of Reichstag participants (1792) . A Markgraf or Margrave was originally a military governor of a Carolingian "mark" ( march ), a border province. In medieval times the borders of the Holy Roman Empire were especially vulnerable to foreign attack, so the hereditary count of these "marches" of the realm was sometimes granted greater authority than other vassals to ensure security. They bore
2324-568: The River Danube , at the confluence with the small Blau Stream , coming from the Blautopf in the west. The mouth of the Iller also falls within Ulm's city limits. The Danube forms the border with Bavaria , where Ulm's twin city Neu-Ulm lies. The city was part of Ulm until 1810, and Ulm and Neu-Ulm have a combined population of around 190,000. Ulm forms an urban district of its own ( Stadtkreis Ulm ), and
2407-564: The SMS Radetzky , the lead ship of the Radetzky- class of pre-dreadnought battleships. The Radetzky March (German: Radetzkymarsch ) is a military march composed by Johann Strauss (senior) that was first performed on August 31, 1848, to celebrate the victory of the Austrian Empire under Field Marshal Radetzky von Radetz over Italian forces at the Battle of Custoza . He received
2490-414: The legal surname (with the former title thus now following the given name, e.g. Otto Graf Lambsdorff ). As dependent parts of the surnames ( nichtselbständige Namensbestandteile ), they are ignored in alphabetical sorting of names, as is any nobiliary particle , such as von or zu , and might or might not be used by those bearing them. The distinguishing main surname is the name following
2573-528: The 15th and 16th centuries, mostly due to the export of high-quality textiles. The city was situated at the crossroads of important trade routes extending to Italy. These centuries, during which many important buildings were erected, also represented the zenith of art in Ulm, especially for painters and sculptors like Hans Multscher and Jörg Syrlin the Elder . During the Reformation , Ulm became Protestant (1530). With
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2656-517: The 16th century for economic reasons, was resumed and eventually finished (1844–1891) in a wave of German national enthusiasm for the Middle Ages . From 1933 to 1935, a concentration camp primarily for political opponents of the regime was established on the Kuhberg, one of the hills surrounding Ulm. The Jews of Ulm, around 500 people, were first discriminated against and later persecuted; their synagogue
2739-531: The 19th century, specifically Markgraf and Landgraf . In Russia, the title of Graf ( Russian : Граф ; feminine: Графиня, romanized Grafinya ) was introduced by Peter the Great . The first Russian graf (or count) was Boris Petrovich Sheremetev , elevated to this dignity in 1706 for the pacification of the Astrakhan uprising (1705–1706) . Then Peter granted six more graf dignities. Initially, when someone
2822-683: The Austrian troops who reconquered Venice after the year-long siege of the rebellious city in May 1848 – August 1849. He became a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1848. His well-disciplined sense of duty towards officers of higher rank had become more intense in the long years of peace, and, after keeping his army loyal midst the confusion of 1848, he made no attempt to play the part of Wallenstein or even to assume Wellington 's role of "family adviser to
2905-582: The City of Ulm was awarded the European Energy Award for its remarkable local energy management and its efforts to combat climate change . Examples of these efforts are a biomass power plant operated by the Fernwärme Ulm GmbH (10 MW electrical output), and the world's biggest passive house office building, the so-called Energon , located in the "Science City" near the university campus. Moreover,
2988-544: The Danube 7 days a week in summer. The "Bündnis 100% Erneuerbare Energien" was founded in February 2010 with the aim of bringing together the people and organisations seeking to promote the transition to 100% renewable energy in Ulm and Neu-Ulm by 2030. Ulm is situated at the crossroads of the A8 motorway (connecting the principal cities of southern Germany, Stuttgart and Munich ), and
3071-460: The Grimms preferred a solution that allows a connection to Old English : gerēfa ' reeve ', in which the ge- is a prefix, and which the Grimms derive from Proto-Germanic *rōva 'number'. The comital title of Graf is common to various European territories where German was or is the official or vernacular tongue, including Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Alsace,
3154-489: The Tore Ceresa. As lieutenant-colonel and colonel, his unit was expanded and he displayed bravery and skill in the battles of Trebbia and Novi (1799), winning praise from his superiors for his inspiring leadership and quick thinking when leading decisive attacks. At the Battle of Marengo , as colonel on the staff of Melas , he was hit by five bullets, after endeavouring on the previous evening to bring about modifications in
3237-505: The Ulm area began in the early Neolithic period, around 5000 BC. Settlements of this time have been identified at the villages of Eggingen and Lehr, today districts of the city. In the city area of Ulm proper, the oldest find dates from the late Neolithic period. The earliest written mention of Ulm is dated 22 July 854 AD, when King Louis the German signed a document in the King's palace of "Hulma" in
3320-461: The allied sovereigns in March 1814, and returned with them to the Congress of Vienna , where he appears to have acted as an intermediary between Metternich and Tsar Alexander I of Russia , when the two were not on speaking terms. During the succeeding years of peace he disappeared from public view. He resumed his functions as chief of staff, but his ardent ideas for reforming the army came to nothing in
3403-448: The army he commanded. But there too he was in advance of his time, and the government not only disregarded his suggestions and warnings but also refused the military the money that would have enabled the finest army it possessed to take the field at a moment's notice. Thus the events of 1848 in Italy , which gave the old field marshal his place in history among the great commanders, found him, in
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3486-533: The beginning, not unprepared but seriously handicapped in the struggle with Charles Albert's army, and the insurgents in Milan and elsewhere. By falling back to the Quadrilatero and there, rebuffing one opponent after another, he was able to buy time until reinforcements arrived, and thenceforward up to the final triumph at the Battle of Novara on 23 March 1849, he and his army carried all before them. He also commanded
3569-559: The bombings, over 80% of the medieval city centre lay in ruins. The Magirus factory hosted a subcamp of the Dachau concentration camp . Some parts of the city were rebuilt in the plain and simple style of the 1950s and 1960s, but most parts of the historic old town have been restored. Due to its almost complete destruction in 1944, the Hirschstraße part of the city primarily consists of modern architecture. Ulm experienced substantial growth in
3652-430: The city of Ulm boasts the second largest solar power production in Germany. For all new buildings, a strict energy standard (German KFW40 standard) has been mandatory since April 2008. Ulm Minster has been fully powered by renewables since January 2008. Until the end of 2011 as a European pilot project a self-sustaining data-centre will be constructed in the west-city of Ulm. There is a solar-powered ferry that crosses
3735-586: The city on clear days. The city of Ulm is situated in the northern part of the North Alpine Foreland basin , where the basin reaches the Swabian Alb . The Turritellenplatte of Ermingen ("Erminger Turritellenplatte") is a famous palaeontological site of Burdigalian age. On the right (south-eastern) side of Danube and Iller there is the Bavarian district town Neu-Ulm . On the left (north-western) side Ulm
3818-410: The city, an agreement between the Ulm patricians and the trade guilds (German: Großer Schwörbrief ), dates from 1397. This document, considered an early city constitution, and the beginning of the construction of an enormous church ( Ulm Minster , 1377), financed by the inhabitants of Ulm themselves rather than by the church, demonstrate the assertiveness of Ulm's medieval citizens. Ulm blossomed during
3901-635: The councils of the Allied sovereigns and generals. Langenau , the quartermaster-general of the Grand Army, found him an indispensable assistant. He was involved in directing the operations that led to the crushing defeat of an entire French corps at the Battle of Kulm and had a considerable share in planning the Leipzig campaign . He won praise for his tactical skills in the battles of Brienne , La Rothière , Arcis-sur-Aube and Fère-Champenoise . He entered Paris with
3984-400: The count's strongholds or fiefs, as the burgrave dwelt usually in a castle or fortified town. Some became hereditary and by the modern era obtained rank just below a count, though above a Freiherr ' (baron) who might hold a fief as vassal of the original count. Unlike the other comital titles, Rhinegrave, Wildgrave ( Waldgrave ), Raugrave , and Altgrave are not generic titles. Rather, each
4067-452: The decades following World War II, with the establishment of large new housing projects and new industrial zones. In 1967, Ulm University was founded, which proved to be of great importance for the development of the city. Particularly since the 1980s, the transition from classical industry towards the high-tech sector has accelerated, with, for example, the establishment of research centres of companies like Daimler , Siemens and Nokia and
4150-563: The emperor himself. A count who was not a Reichsgraf was likely to possess only a mesne fief ( Afterlehen ) — he was subject to an immediate prince of the empire, such as a duke or prince elector . However, the Holy Roman Emperors also occasionally granted the title of Reichsgraf to subjects and foreigners who did not possess and were not granted immediate territories — or, sometimes, any territory at all. Such titles were purely honorific . In English, Reichsgraf
4233-516: The establishment of a railway station in 1850. The most important sector is still classical industry (machinery, especially motor vehicles; electronics ; pharmaceuticals ). The establishment of the University of Ulm in 1967, which focuses on biomedicine , the sciences, and engineering, helped support a transition to high-tech industry, especially after the crisis of classical industries in the 1980s. Companies with headquarters in Ulm include: Companies with important sites in Ulm include: In 2007
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#17328585499744316-727: The establishment of new trade routes following the discovery of the New World (16th century) and the outbreak and consequences of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), the city began to decline gradually. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), it was alternately invaded several times by French and Bavarian soldiers. In the wars following the French Revolution , the city was alternately occupied by French and Austrian forces, with
4399-402: The exiled patriots in the rest of Italy, and masking their action as "repression of banditry," there was little danger of it acquiring international resonance. From 1849, Radetzky introduced public caning as a form of punishment, the death penalty for armed uprising and life sentences for plotting revolutionary activities. The Belfiore martyrs , Luigi Dottesio and Amatore Sciesa were among
4482-482: The face of the general war-weariness and desire to "let well enough alone." His zeal added to the number of his enemies, and in 1829, after twenty years as lieutenant field marshal, it was proposed to place him on the retired list. The emperor, unwilling to go as far as that, promoted him general of cavalry and shelved him by making him governor of a fortress. But very soon afterwards, the Restoration settlement of Europe
4565-458: The failed Battle of Caldiero and was highly critical of the way in which the campaign had been conducted (1805). Peace provided a short respite, which he spent in studying and teaching the art of war. In 1809 he distinguished himself in rearguard actions at Abensberg and led a brigade in V Corps during the Battle of Eckmühl . Promoted lieutenant field marshal , he commanded a division in IV Corps at
4648-641: The following orders and decorations: These are Radetzky's letters to his daughter Friederike Radetzky von Radetz, Gräfin Wenckheim, published to celebrate the unveiling of the Radetzky monument in Vienna. Graf Graf (feminine: Gräfin ) is a historical title of the German nobility and later also of the Russian nobility , usually translated as " count ". Considered to be intermediate among noble ranks ,
4731-453: The former ones destroying the city fortifications. In 1803, it lost the status of Imperial City and was absorbed into Bavaria . During the campaign of 1805, Napoleon managed to trap the invading Austrian army of General Mack and forced it to surrender in the Battle of Ulm . In 1810, Ulm was incorporated into the Kingdom of Württemberg and lost its districts on the other bank of the Danube, which came to be known as Neu-Ulm (New Ulm). In
4814-537: The hereditary title of Graf to their subjects, particularly after the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Although lacking the prestige and powers of the former Imperial counts, they remained legal members of the local nobility, entitled to whatever minor privileges were recognised at the ruler's court. The title, translated as "count", was generally accepted and used in other countries by custom. Many Continental counts in Germany and Austria were titled Graf without any additional qualification. Except in
4897-462: The indecisive "cordon" system of warfare which Count von Lacy had instituted and other Austrian generals imitated. His personal courage was conspicuous. At the Battle of Fleurus (1794) he led a party of cavalry through the French lines to discover the fate of Charleroi , at the Battle of Voltri he was in the thick of the action and roused the troops to victory and at Valeggio sul Mincio in 1796, with
4980-449: The latest municipality reform in the 1970s: Eggingen, Einsingen, Ermingen, Gögglingen-Donaustetten, Jungingen, Lehr, Mähringen und Unterweiler. They have their own local councils which acquire an important consulting position to the whole city council concerning issues that are related to the prevailing districts. But at the end, final decisions can only be made by the city council of the entire city of Ulm. The oldest traceable settlement of
5063-559: The many who were executed for treason. Josef Wenzel Graf Radetzky of Radetz died from pneumonia on 5 January 1858 in Milan . The Emperor wished him to be buried in the Capuchin crypt (the Imperial Crypt in Vienna ); however, Radetzky had bequeathed his earthly remains, and the right to bury him, to Joseph Gottfried Pargfrieder , an army supplies merchant and land owner, who decades earlier had settled his debts. On 19 January 1858, Radetzky
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#17328585499745146-449: The medieval Holy Roman Empire, some counts took or were granted unique variations of the gräfliche title, often relating to a specific domain or jurisdiction of responsibility, e.g. Landgraf , Markgraf , Pfalzgraf ( Count Palatine ), Burggraf , Wildgraf , Waldgraf , Altgraf , Raugraf , etc. Although as a title Graf ranked, officially, below those of Herzog (duke) and Fürst (prince),
5229-435: The mid-19th century, the city was designated a fortress of the German Confederation with huge military construction works directed primarily against the threat of a French invasion. The city became an important centre of industrialisation in southern Germany in the second half of the 19th century, its built-up area now being extended beyond the medieval walls. The construction of the huge minster, which had been interrupted in
5312-463: The monarchies of Belgium, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg, where German is one of the official languages , the title continues to be recognised, used and, occasionally, granted by the national fons honorum , the reigning monarch. From the Middle Ages , a Graf usually ruled a territory known as a Grafschaft ('county'). In the Holy Roman Empire , many Imperial counts ( Reichsgrafen ) retained near-sovereign authority in their lands until
5395-406: The nation". While as a patriot he dreamed a little of a united Germany, he remained to the end simply the commander of one of the emperor's armies. After his triumph in Italy , he was made Viceroy of Lombardy–Venetia from 1848 to 1857 – being the only one not of royal Habsburg blood. Repression in Lombardy–Venetia was severe: The Austrians could act with impunity and little denunciation from
5478-436: The old town are for the use of pedestrians and cyclists only. Ulm was the first area to be served by the Daimler AG 's Car2Go carsharing service in 2008. However, the service in Ulm was discontinued at the end of 2014. The University of Ulm was founded in 1967 and focuses on the sciences, medicine, engineering, and mathematics / economics. With about 10,000 students, it is one of the smaller universities in Germany. Ulm
5561-414: The plains, the temperature fluctuates greatly, with the average temperature ranging from −1 °C (30 °F) in winter to 18 °C (64 °F) in summer, and precipitation is concentrated from May to August. The Lübeck weather station has recorded the following extreme values: The city has very old trading traditions dating from medieval times and a long history of industrialisation, beginning with
5644-451: The plan suggested by the "scientific" Anton von Zach . He was then transferred to take command of a regiment in Germany where he distinguished himself at the Battle of Hohenlinden . In 1801 Radetzky was made a Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa . In 1805, on the march to Ulm , he received news of his promotion to major-general and his assignment to a command in Italy under the Archduke Charles of Austria . He thus took part in
5727-423: The point where the rivers Blau and Iller join the Danube , at an altitude of 479 m (1,571.52 ft) above sea level . Most parts of the city, including the old town, are situated on the northern bank of the Danube; only the districts of Wiblingen, Gögglingen, Donaustetten and Unterweiler lie on the southern bank. Across from the old town, on the other side of the river, lies the twin city of Neu-Ulm in
5810-406: The same family. Examples: Burgrave of Nuremberg , Burgrave of ( Burggraf zu ) Dohna-Schlobitten Initially burgrave suggested a similar function and history as other titles rendered in German by Vizegraf , in Dutch as Burggraaf or in English as Viscount ( Latin : Vicecomes ); the deputy of a count charged with exercising the count's prerogatives in overseeing one or more of
5893-442: The state of Bavaria , smaller than Ulm and, until 1810, a part of it (population c. 50,000). Except for the Danube in the south, the city is surrounded by forests and hills which rise to altitudes of over 620 metres (2,034.12 feet), some of them part of the Swabian Alb . South of the Danube, plains and hills finally end in the northern edge of the Alps , which are approximately 100 kilometres (62 miles) from Ulm and are visible from
5976-579: The third-person in direct address as a mark of courtesy, as in grevinnan . German nobility , although not abolished (unlike the Austrian nobility by the new First Austrian Republic in 1919), lost recognition as a legal class in Germany under the Weimar Republic in 1919 under the Weimar Constitution , article 109. Former hereditary noble titles legally simply transformed into dependent parts of
6059-537: The title "margrave" until the few who survived as sovereigns assumed higher titles when the Empire was abolished in 1806. Examples: Margrave of Baden , Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth . Since the abolition of the German Empire at the end of World War I, the heirs of some of its former monarchies have resumed use of margrave as a title of pretence , e.g. Maria Emanuel , Margrave of Meissen and Maximilian, Margrave of Baden . A Landgraf or Landgrave
6142-482: The title is often treated as equivalent to the British title of " earl " (whose female version is "countess"). The German nobility was gradually divided into high and low nobility. The high nobility included those counts who ruled immediate imperial territories of " princely size and importance" for which they had a seat and vote in the Imperial Diet . The word Graf derives from Middle High German : grave , which
6225-612: Was a nobleman whose title of count was conferred or confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor , and meant "Imperial Count", i.e., a count of the Holy Roman Empire. Since the feudal era, any count whose territory lay within the Empire and was under the immediate jurisdiction of the Emperor with a shared vote in the Reichstag came to be considered a member of the "upper nobility" ( Hochadel ) in Germany, along with princes ( Fürsten ), dukes ( Herzöge ), electors ( Kurfürsten ), and
6308-403: Was a 12th- and 13th-century military and civil judicial governor of a castle (compare castellan , custos , keeper ) of the town it dominated and of its immediate surrounding countryside. His jurisdiction was a Burggrafschaft , burgraviate. Over time the office and domain to which it was attached tended to become hereditary by Imperial grant or retention over generations by members of
6391-472: Was a nobleman of comital rank in feudal Germany whose jurisdiction stretched over a territory larger than usually held by a count within the Holy Roman Empire . The status of a landgrave was elevated, usually being associated with suzerains who were subject to the Holy Roman Emperor but exercised sovereign authority within their lands and independence greater than the prerogatives to which a simple Graf
6474-602: Was buried at the Heldenberg Memorial site (Gedenkstätte Heldenberg) in Lower Austria, an open-air pantheon with warrior statues celebrating the heroes of Austrian military history from Middle Ages to the 19th century ( Heldenberg literally translates as "Heroes Mountain"). Radetzky lies buried in a crypt under a monumental obelisk in the central part of the pantheon, together with Field Marshal Maximilian von Wimpffen and Pargfrieder himself. In military history Radetzky
6557-548: Was elevated to the graf's dignity of the Russian Empire , the elevated person recognition by the German Emperor in the same dignity of the Holy Roman Empire was required. Subsequently, the latter ceased to be obligatory. Some are approximately of comital rank, some higher, some lower. The more important ones are treated in separate articles (follow the links); a few minor, rarer ones only in sections below. A Reichsgraf
6640-561: Was entitled, but the title itself implied no specific, legal privileges. Landgraf occasionally continued in use as the subsidiary title of such minor royalty as the Elector of Hesse or the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar , who functioned as the Landgrave of Thuringia in the first decade of the 20th century. The jurisdiction of a landgrave was a Landgrafschaft or landgraviate, and the wife of
6723-478: Was shaken by fresh upheavals, and Radetzky was brought back into the field of war again. He took part under Frimont in the campaign against the Papal States insurgents, and succeeded that general in the chief command of the Austrian army in Italy in 1834. In 1836, Radetzky was promoted to full field marshal . He was then seventy, but still displayed the vigor and zeal of his youth in the training and discipline of
6806-649: Was still a child. Orphaned at an early age Radetzky was educated by his grandfather, and after the latter's death, he continued at the Theresa Academy in Vienna . The academy was dissolved during his first year's residence in 1785, and Radetzky became a cadet in the Austrian Army. The following year he became an officer, and in 1787 was promoted to first lieutenant in a cuirassier regiment. He served as an adjutant to both Count von Lacy and Field Marshal von Laudon during
6889-698: Was torn down during Kristallnacht in November 1938. Of 116 Jews deported from Ulm during World War II (45 were sent to Theresienstadt on 22 August 1942), only four returned. Approximately 25 Jews were living in Ulm in 1968. The sole RAF strategic bombing during World War II against Ulm occurred on 17 December 1944, against the two large lorry factories of Magirus -Deutz and Kässbohrer , as well as other industries, barracks, and depots in Ulm. The Gallwitz Barracks and several military hospitals were among 14 Wehrmacht establishments destroyed. The raid killed 707 Ulm inhabitants and left 25,000 homeless and after all
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