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132-547: Die Rabenschlacht (The Battle of Ravenna) is an anonymous 13th-century Middle High German poem about the hero Dietrich von Bern , the counterpart of the historical Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great in Germanic heroic legend . It is part of the so-called "historical" Dietrich material and is closely related to, and always transmitted together with another Dietrich poem, Dietrichs Flucht . At one time, both poems were thought to have

264-525: A compromise allowed the formation of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1867, a major power into the early 20th century. Austria-Hungary collapsed after World War I , and the subsequent Treaty of Trianon in 1920 established Hungary's current borders, resulting in the loss of 71% of its historical territory, 58% of its population, and 32% of its ethnic Hungarians . In the interwar period , after initial turmoil, Miklós Horthy ascended as

396-677: A high-income economy with universal health care and tuition-free secondary education . Hungary has a long history of significant contributions to arts , music , literature , sports , science and technology . It is a popular tourist destination in Europe, drawing 24.5 million international tourists in 2019. It is a member of numerous international organisations, including the Council of Europe , European Union , NATO , United Nations , World Health Organization , World Trade Organization , World Bank , Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank , and

528-603: A Hunnish army, bringing along his brother Thether (Diether) and Attila's two sons Erp and Ortwin. The army fights a mighty battle against Ermanrik at Gronsport on the Mosel and defeats him. During the battle, Wiðga (Witege) kills Thether, Erp, and Ortwin; Didrik pursues Wiðga, breathing fire, until the latter disappears in the (non-existent) mouth of the Mosel into the sea. Didrik throws his spear after Wiðga, and one can still see it today. Didrik then returns to exile. Joachim Heinzle notes that it

660-524: A bilineal descendant of the Árpád dynasty – successfully restored royal power and defeated oligarch rivals, the so-called "little kings". The second Angevin Hungarian king, Louis the Great (1342–1382), led many successful military campaigns from Lithuania to southern Italy ( Kingdom of Naples ) and was also King of Poland from 1370. After King Louis died without a male heir, the country was stabilised only when Sigismund of Luxembourg (1387–1437) succeeded to

792-653: A destabilisation of the Soviet bloc. On 4 November, reinforcements of more than 150,000 troops and 2,500 tanks entered the country from the Soviet Union. Nearly 20,000 Hungarians were killed resisting the intervention, while an additional 21,600 were imprisoned afterward for political reasons. Some 13,000 were interned and 230 brought to trial and executed. Nagy was secretly tried, found guilty, sentenced to death, and executed by hanging in June 1958. Because borders were briefly opened, nearly

924-681: A determining politician, representing the monarchy as regent in place of the Habsburgs. Hungary joined the Axis powers in World War II , suffering significant damage and casualties. As a result, the Hungarian People's Republic was established as a satellite state of the Soviet Union . Following the failed 1956 revolution , Hungary became comparatively freer , but still remained a repressed member of

1056-422: A form that is not found in any other poem. Like other stanzaic heroic poems, it was probably meant to be sung, but no melody survives. Heinzle analyzes the stanza as consisting of three "Langzeilen" with rhymes at the caesuras : a||b, a||b, c||c . The first line consists of three metrical feet before the caesura, then three additional feet; the second of three feet before the caesura, then four additional feet; and

1188-509: A gruelling twelve-day battle outside Ravenna, defeating Ermenrich, who escapes. His treacherous advisor Sibeche, however, is captured by Eckehart, who ties him naked to a horse and leads him across the battlefield to avenge the death of the Harlungen at Sibeche's advice. As the dead are gathered to be buried, Elsan arrives with news that Etzel's sons are missing. The warrior Helpfrich then comes with news of their deaths. Dietrich finds their bodies on

1320-728: A just ruler because he protected them from excessive demands and other abuses by the magnates. Under his rule, in 1479, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield . Abroad he defeated the Polish and German imperial armies of Frederick at Breslau ( Wrocław ). Matthias' mercenary standing army, the Black Army of Hungary , was an unusually large army for its time, and it conquered Vienna as well as parts of Austria and Bohemia . King Matthias died without lawful sons, and

1452-569: A list of 12 demands . Under Governor and President Lajos Kossuth and Prime Minister Lajos Batthyány , the House of Habsburg was dethroned. The Habsburg ruler and his advisors skillfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian peasantry, led by priests and officers firmly loyal to the Habsburgs, into rebelling against the Hungarian government, though the Hungarians were supported by the vast majority of

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1584-552: A mercenary commander. He was elected governor, then regent. He was a successful crusader against the Ottoman Turks , one of his greatest victories being the siege of Belgrade in 1456. The last strong king of medieval Hungary was the Renaissance king Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490), son of John Hunyadi. His election was the first time that a member of the nobility mounted to the Hungarian royal throne without dynastic background. He

1716-456: A new policy line, according to which the people were no longer compelled to profess loyalty to the party if they tacitly accepted the socialist regime as a fact of life. Kádár introduced new planning priorities in the economy, such as allowing farmers significant plots of private land within the collective farm system ( háztáji gazdálkodás ). The living standard rose as consumer goods and food production took precedence over military production, which

1848-426: A quarter of a million people fled the country by the time the revolution was suppressed. After a second, briefer period of Soviet military occupation, János Kádár , Nagy's former minister of state, was chosen by the Soviet leadership to head the new government and chair the new ruling Socialist Workers' Party . Kádár quickly normalised the situation. In 1963, the government granted a general amnesty. Kádár proclaimed

1980-578: A severe decline in living standards. In imitation of Stalin's KGB , the Rákosi government established a secret political police, the ÁVH , to enforce the regime; approximately 350,000 officials and intellectuals were imprisoned or executed from 1948 to 1956. Many freethinkers, democrats, and Horthy-era dignitaries were secretly arrested and extrajudicially interned in domestic and foreign gulags . Some 600,000 Hungarians were deported to Soviet labour camps, where at least 200,000 died. After Stalin's death in 1953,

2112-488: A single author, Heinrich der Vogler ; however, the formal and stylistic differences between the two epics have caused this theory to be abandoned. The manuscript transmission nevertheless makes clear that Die Rabenschlacht and Dietrichs Flucht were viewed as a single work by contemporaries. Someone, perhaps Heinrich der Vogler, has also reworked both texts to an extent so that their contents do not contradict each other. Die Rabenschlacht consists of 1140 unique stanzas, in

2244-463: A territorial expansion eastwards ( Ostsiedlung ), which saw German-speaking settlers colonise land previously under Slavic control. Linguistically, the transition to Early New High German is marked by four vowel changes which together produce the phonemic system of modern German, though not all dialects participated equally in these changes: The centres of culture in the ENHG period are no longer

2376-479: Is assembled at Etzelburg . Helche and Etzel's sons Orte and Scharpfe beg Helche to be allowed to join the army. Etzel and Dietrich come in upon this conversation, and Etzel categorically refuses. Dietrich, however, promises to take good care of the young princes, so that Helche agrees and Orte and Scharpfe join the army. The army arrives in Italy, where it is greeted by Dietrich's loyal vassals who have remained there after

2508-399: Is generally dated from 1050 to 1350. An older view puts the boundary with (Early) New High German around 1500. There are several phonological criteria which separate MHG from the preceding Old High German period: Culturally, the two periods are distinguished by the transition from a predominantly clerical written culture, in which the dominant language was Latin , to one centred on

2640-627: Is sometimes thought to have been influenced by Witigis , a Gothic king and usurper who surrendered Ravenna to the Byzantine army. Diether is similarly thought to have a connection to the historical Theodahad , whom Witigis betrayed, usurping the Ostrogothic throne. Werner Hoffmann suggests that Ermenrich's rather small role in Die Rabenschlacht is because the original tale of Witige killing Etzel's sons and Diether has been only roughly inserted into

2772-493: Is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri . The first element magy is likely from Proto-Ugric * mäńć- 'man, person', also found in the name of the Mansi people ( mäńćī, mańśi, måńś ). The second element eri , 'man, men, lineage', survives in Hungarian férj 'husband', and is cognate with Mari erge 'son', Finnish archaic yrkä 'young man'. The Roman Empire conquered

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2904-860: Is the opening strophe of the Nibelungenlied ( c.  1204 ). Middle High German Uns ist in alten mæren    wunders vil geseit von helden lobebæren,    von grôzer arebeit, von freuden, hôchgezîten,    von weinen und von klagen, von küener recken strîten    muget ir nu wunder hœren sagen. Modern German translation In alten Erzählungen wird uns viel Wunderbares berichtet von ruhmreichen Helden, von hartem Streit, von glücklichen Tagen und Festen, von Schmerz und Klage: vom Kampf tapferer Recken: Davon könnt auch Ihr nun Wunderbares berichten hören. Hungary – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in

3036-742: Is transmitted together with Dietrichs Flucht in four complete manuscripts and alone in one fragmentary manuscript: The origins of the earliest manuscripts as well as the dialect of the poem indicate that it was composed in Austria, sometime before 1300. Most modern scholarship holds Die Rabenschlacht to have been composed earlier than Dietrichs Flucht: Joachim Heinzle notes that Die Rabenschlacht contains allusions to Wolfram von Eschenbach 's Willehlam (c. 1220) and cannot have been composed any earlier than that. Werner Hoffmann suggests that Die Rabenschlacht may have been composed around 1270, before being reworked and placed together with Dietrichs Flucht in

3168-537: Is unclear how much of the variation between the version found in Die Rabenschlacht and that found in the Thidrekssaga is the work of the latter's compiler or comes from alternative versions in oral circulation. The late medieval Heldenbuch-Prosa corroborates the Thidrekssaga 's version of the story of why Sibeche betrayed Ermenrich, and it is clear that the composer of the Heldenbuch-Prosa did not have access to

3300-495: The Ostsiedlung and arise towards the end of the period. Middle High German texts are written in the Latin alphabet . There was no standardised spelling, but modern editions generally standardise according to a set of conventions established by Karl Lachmann in the 19th century. There are several important features in this standardised orthography which are not characteristics of

3432-471: The 2015 migrant crisis , the government built a border barrier on the Hungarian-Croatian and Hungarian-Serbian borders to prevent illegal migration. The Hungarian government also criticised the official European Union policy for not dissuading migrants from entering Europe. From 17 October 2015 onward, thousands of migrants were diverted daily to Slovenia instead. Migration became a key issue in

3564-728: The 2018 parliamentary elections , which Fidesz won with a supermajority. In the late 2010s, Orbán's government came under increased international scrutiny over alleged rule-of-law violations. In 2018, the European Parliament voted to act against Hungary under the terms of Article 7 of the Treaty on European Union . Hungary has and continues to dispute these allegations. The coronavirus pandemic significantly impacted Hungary. The first cases were announced in Hungary on 4 March 2020; on 18 March 2020, surgeon general Cecília Müller announced that

3696-561: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . Hungary is a landlocked country . Its geography has traditionally been defined by its two main waterways, the Danube and Tisza rivers. The common tripartite division— Dunántúl ("beyond the Danube", Transdanubia ), Tiszántúl ("beyond the Tisza"), and Duna–Tisza köze ("between the Danube and Tisza")—is a reflection of this. The Danube flows north–south through

3828-413: The Battle of Lechfeld in 955 signaled a provisory end to most campaigns on foreign territories, at least towards the west. In 972, the ruling prince ( Hungarian : fejedelem ) Géza of the Árpád dynasty officially started to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe. His son Saint Stephen I became the first King of Hungary after defeating his pagan uncle Koppány . Under Stephen, Hungary

3960-618: The Eastern Bloc . In 1989, concurrently with the Revolutions of 1989 , Hungary peacefully transitioned into a democratic parliamentary republic , joining the European Union in 2004 and being part of the Schengen Area since 2007. Since the election of Viktor Orbán in 2010, Hungary has undergone democratic backsliding becoming an illiberal democracy and hybrid regime . Hungary is

4092-517: The European Union  (green)  –  [ Legend ] Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe . Spanning 93,030 square kilometres (35,920 sq mi) of the Carpathian Basin , it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and Slovenia to the southwest, and Austria to

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4224-760: The Finno-Ugrian theory , they originated from an ancient Uralic -speaking population that formerly inhabited the forested area between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains . However, genetic and linguistic evidence suggests that the Hungarians’ origins lie east of the Southern Urals , in Western Siberia . The Hungarians arrived in the Carpathian Basin as a frame of a strong centralized steppe-empire under

4356-471: The Hungarian Democratic Forum , a major conservative opposition group, was elected to the head of a coalition government. József Antall became the first democratically elected prime minister since World War II. With the removal of state subsidies and rapid privatisation in 1991, Hungary was affected by a severe economic recession. The Antall government's austerity measures proved unpopular, and

4488-728: The Hunnic Empire ( c.  370 –469). The most powerful ruler of the Hunnic Empire was Attila the Hun (434–453), who later became a central figure in Hungarian mythology. After the disintegration of the Hunnic Empire, the Gepids , an Eastern Germanic tribe, who had been vassalised by the Huns, established their own kingdom in the Carpathian Basin. Other groups which reached the Carpathian Basin during

4620-667: The Mecsek Mountains and Villány Mountains in the south. The highest point of the area is the Írott-kő in the Alps, at 882 metres (2,894 ft). The Little Hungarian Plain ( Kisalföld ) is found in northern Transdanubia. Lake Balaton and Lake Hévíz , the largest lake in Central Europe and the largest thermal lake in the world, respectively, are in Transdanubia as well. The Duna–Tisza köze and Tiszántúl are characterised mainly by

4752-657: The Principality of Transylvania , under Ottoman (and later Habsburg) suzerainty . The remaining central area, including the capital Buda, was known as the Pashalik of Buda. In 1686, the Holy League's army, containing over 74,000 men from various nations, reconquered Buda from the Turks. After some more crushing defeats of the Ottomans in the next few years, the entire Kingdom of Hungary

4884-509: The Thidrekssaga . This indicates that at least some of the Thidrekssaga 's changes may come from oral tradition, indicating the existence of multiple versions of the story. The scholar Norbert Voorwinden has suggested that the author of Die Rabenschlacht was largely unaware of the oral tradition, creating an entirely new work on the basis of an allusion to the death of Etzel's sons in the Nibelungenklage . Attempts have been made to connect

5016-626: The Visegrád Group . The "H" in the name of Hungary is most likely derived from historical associations with the Huns , who had settled Hungary prior to the Avars . The rest of the word comes from the Latinised form of Byzantine Greek Oungroi ( Οὔγγροι ). The Greek name might be borrowed from Old Slavonic ągrinŭ , in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur ('ten [tribes of the] Ogurs'). Onogur

5148-432: The 1280s. Victor Millet questions whether Die Rabenschlacht is really an earlier work than Dietrichs Flucht , and Elisabeth Lienert suggests that the poems were actually composed at roughly the same time, though older versions of Die Rabenschlacht must have existed. As with almost all German heroic epic , Die Rabenschlacht is anonymous. Early scholarship believed that both Dietrichs Fluch and Die Rabenschlacht had

5280-423: The 1947 Paris Peace Treaties , Hungary was again reduced to its immediate post-Trianon borders. The war left Hungary devastated, destroying over 60% of the economy and causing significant loss of life . In addition to the over 600,000 Hungarian Jews killed, as many as 280,000 other Hungarians were raped, murdered and executed or deported for slave labour. After German occupation, Hungary participated in

5412-532: The Communist Party's legal and political heir, the Socialist Party , won the subsequent 1994 elections . This abrupt shift in the political landscape was repeated in 1998 and 2002 ; in each electoral cycle, the governing party was ousted and the erstwhile opposition elected. Like most other post-communist European states, however, Hungary broadly pursued an integrationist agenda, joining NATO in 1999 and

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5544-519: The Czechoslovak front, Kun's forces were ultimately unable to resist the Romanian invasion; by August 1919, Romanian troops occupied Budapest and ousted Kun. In November 1919, rightist forces led by former Austro-Hungarian admiral Miklós Horthy entered Budapest; exhausted by the war and its aftermath, the populace accepted Horthy's leadership. In January 1920, parliamentary elections were held, and Horthy

5676-551: The European Union in 2004 . As a NATO member, Hungary was involved in the Yugoslav Wars . In 2006, major nationwide protests erupted after it was revealed that Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány had claimed in a closed-door speech that his party "lied" to win the recent elections . The popularity of left-wing parties plummeted in the ensuing political upheaval, and in 2010, Viktor Orbán 's national-conservative Fidesz party

5808-605: The German war machine. By October 1944, the Soviets had reached the river Tisza, and despite some losses , succeeded in encircling and besieging Budapest in December. On 13 February 1945, Budapest surrendered; by April, German troops left the country under Soviet military occupation. 200,000 Hungarians were expelled from Czechoslovakia in exchange for 70,000 Slovaks living in Hungary. 202,000 ethnic Germans were expelled to Germany, and through

5940-666: The Holocaust , deporting nearly 440,000 Jews, mainly to Auschwitz . Nearly all of them were murdered. The Horthy government's complicity in the Holocaust remains a point of controversy and contention. Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Hungary became a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Soviet leadership selected Mátyás Rákosi to front the Stalinisation of the country, and Rákosi de facto ruled Hungary from 1949 to 1956. His government's policies of militarisation, industrialisation, collectivisation, and war compensation led to

6072-525: The Hungarian army, and Prime Minister Batthyány in October 1849. Kossuth escaped into exile. Following the war of 1848–1849, the whole country was in "passive resistance". Because of external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable, and major military defeats of Austria forced the Habsburgs to negotiate the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , by which the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary

6204-537: The Hungarian magnates procured the accession of the Pole Vladislaus II (1490–1516), supposedly because of his weak influence on Hungarian aristocracy. Hungary's international role declined, its political stability was shaken, and social progress was deadlocked. In 1514, the weakened old King Vladislaus II faced a major peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa , which was ruthlessly crushed by the nobles , led by John Zápolya . The resulting degradation of order paved

6336-531: The Kingdom of Hungary spent little time defending the actual territory of Hungary, with the exceptions of the Brusilov offensive in June 1916 and a few months later when the Romanian army made an attack into Transylvania, both of which were repelled. The Central Powers conquered Serbia. Romania declared war. The Central Powers conquered southern Romania and the Romanian capital Bucharest . In 1916 Franz Joseph died, and

6468-608: The Kuruc forces surrendered. During the Napoleonic Wars and afterward, the Hungarian Diet had not convened for decades. In the 1820s, the emperor was forced to convene the Diet, which marked the beginning of a Reform Period (1825–1848, Hungarian : reformkor ). The Hungarian Parliament was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged and focused on providing for

6600-405: The Migration Period were the Goths , Vandals , Lombards , and Slavs . In the 560s, the Avars founded the Avar Khaganate, a state that maintained supremacy in the region for more than two centuries. The Franks under Charlemagne defeated the Avars in a series of campaigns during the 790s. Between 804 and 829, the First Bulgarian Empire conquered the lands east of the Danube and took over

6732-426: The Nazis rewarded Hungary's staunchly pro-Germany foreign policy in the First and Second Vienna Awards , peacefully restoring ethnic-Hungarian-majority areas lost after Trianon. In 1939, Hungary regained further territory from Czechoslovakia through force . Hungary formally joined the Axis powers on 20 November 1940 and in 1941 participated in the invasion of Yugoslavia , gaining some of its former territories in

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6864-430: The River Don in January 1943. Learning of the planned defection, German troops occupied Hungary on 19 March 1944 to guarantee Horthy's compliance. In October, as the Soviet front approached, and the government made further efforts to disengage from the war, German troops ousted Horthy and installed a puppet government under Szálasi's fascist Arrow Cross Party . Szálasi pledged all the country's capabilities in service of

6996-519: The Roman province Moesia in 6 BC. An area east of the river Tisza became the Roman province of Dacia in 106 AD, which included today's east Hungary. It remained under Roman rule until 271. From 235, the Roman Empire went through troubled times, caused by revolts, rivalry and rapid succession of emperors. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century under the stress of the migration of Germanic tribes and Carpian pressure. This period brought many invaders into Central Europe, beginning with

7128-489: The Slovak, German and Rusyn nationalities and by all the Jews of the kingdom, as well as by a large number of Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers. In July 1849 the Hungarian Parliament proclaimed and enacted the first laws of ethnic and minority rights in the world. Many members of the nationalities gained the coveted highest positions within the Hungarian Army, like János Damjanich and Józef Bem . The Hungarian forces ( Honvédség ) defeated Austrian armies. To counter

7260-419: The Soviet Army and the ÁVH; the roughly 3,000-strong resistance fought Soviet tanks using Molotov cocktails and machine-pistols. Though the preponderance of the Soviets was immense, they suffered heavy losses, and by 30 October 1956, most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrison the countryside. For a time, the Soviet leadership was unsure how to respond but eventually decided to intervene to prevent

7392-432: The Soviet Union pursued a programme of de-Stalinisation that was inimical to Rákosi, leading to his deposition. The following political cooling saw the ascent of Imre Nagy to the premiership. Nagy promised market liberalisation and political openness. Rákosi eventually managed to discredit Nagy and replace him with the more hard-line Ernő Gerő . Hungary joined the Warsaw Pact in May 1955, as societal dissatisfaction with

7524-427: The Soviet Union. As a result of this relatively high standard of living , a more liberalised economy, a less censored press, and less restricted travel rights, Hungary was generally considered one of the more liberal countries in which to live in Central Europe during communism. In 1980, Hungary sent a Cosmonaut into space as part of the Interkosmos . The first Hungarian astronaut was Bertalan Farkas . Hungary became

7656-435: The approximate values of /ei/ , /iə/ , /ou/ , /øy/ , /eu/ , /yə/ , /uə/ , respectively. Middle High German pronouns of the first person refer to the speaker; those of the second person refer to an addressed person; and those of the third person refer to a person or thing of which one speaks. The pronouns of the third person may be used to replace nominal phrases . These have the same genders , numbers and cases as

7788-406: The battles in Die Rabenschlacht as part of a literary rivalry between the two traditions, an intertextual relationship. The poem includes allusions to other thirteenth-century literary texts as well, including Wolfram von Eschenbach's Willehalm . This confirms its nature as a literary text, in dialogue with other literature. The general outline of the story told in Die Rabenschlacht , about

7920-401: The catalogues of warriors found in the work with signs of oral formulaic composition . Middle High German While there is no standard MHG, the prestige of the Hohenstaufen court gave rise in the late 12th century to a supra-regional literary language ( mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache ) based on Swabian , an Alemannic dialect. This historical interpretation is complicated by

8052-419: The centre of contemporary Hungary, and the entire country lies within its drainage basin . Transdanubia, which stretches westward from the centre of the country towards Austria, is a primarily hilly region with a terrain varied by low mountains. These include the very eastern stretch of the Alps , Alpokalja , in the west of the country, the Transdanubian Mountains in the central region of Transdanubia, and

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8184-484: The city. They get lost and end up on the road to Ravenna, while Elsan looks for them in despair. Once the young warriors have spent a night outside the city, they reach the shore of the sea. In the dawn they encounter Witege . Diether tells Etzel's children that Witege is a warrior who betrayed Dietrich, and the three young warriors attack. Witege slays each of them in difficult combat; he is deeply distressed and laments Diether's death especially. Meanwhile, Dietrich fights

8316-429: The conflict and invaded Croatia in 1091. The Kingdom of Croatia entered a personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary in 1102 with the coronation of King Coloman as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in 1102 in Biograd . The most powerful and wealthiest king of the Árpád dynasty was Béla III , who disposed of the equivalent of 23 tonnes of silver per year, according to a contemporary income register . This exceeded

8448-421: The country from three sides— Romania invaded Transylvania , Czechoslovakia annexed Upper Hungary (today's Slovakia), and a joint Serb - French coalition annexed Vojvodina and other southern regions. In March 1919, communists led by Béla Kun ousted the Károlyi government and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic ( Tanácsköztársaság ), followed by a thorough Red Terror campaign. Despite some successes on

8580-452: The country, who were fleeing the Mongols. Over the centuries, they were fully assimilated. After the Mongols retreated, King Béla ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortifications, to defend against a possible second Mongol invasion. The Mongols returned to Hungary in 1285, but the newly built stone-castle systems and new tactics (using a higher proportion of heavily armed knights) stopped them. The invading Mongol force

8712-403: The court of Etzel . Dietrich is still saddened by the loss of his men in the previous poem, especially Alphart . Etzel announces that he will give Dietrich a new army, and there is a large feast to celebrate Dietrich's marriage to Herrad, niece of his wife Helche. Helche, however, is troubled by a dream in which a wild dragon carries away her two sons and rips them to shreds. Meanwhile, a new army

8844-410: The courts but the towns. The dialect map of Germany by the end of the Middle High German period was much the same as that at the start of the 20th century, though the boundary with Low German was further south than it now is: Central German ( Mitteldeutsch ) Upper German ( Oberdeutsch ) With the exception of Thuringian, the East Central German dialects are new dialects resulting from

8976-411: The courts of the great nobles, with German gradually expanding its range of use. The rise of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in Swabia makes the South West the dominant region in both political and cultural terms. Demographically, the MHG period is characterised by a massive rise in population, terminated by the demographic catastrophe of the Black Death (1348). Along with the rise in population comes

9108-467: The death of Attila the Hun , in which Attila's favorite son and successor Ellac died. Theodoric the Great 's father Theodemar is thought to have fought on the side of the Huns in this battle, with his actions transferred to his more famous son in the oral tradition. Elisabeth Lienert suggests the poem's location at Ravenna may have been influenced by the historical Theodoric the Great besieging his enemy Odoacer there from 491 to 493. Witige's character

9240-431: The death of Etzel and Herche's sons, is often considered to be one of the oldest components of the legend of Theodoric. It is first alluded to in the Nibelungenklage , a poem likely written shortly after the Nibelungenlied (c. 1200). Older scholarship proposed a Gothic song as the earliest version. According to this theory, the song was inspired by the Battle of Nedao (454), a rebellion of Germanic tribes after

9372-413: The dethronement of the Habsburgs in 1707 at the Diet of Ónod , took power provisionally as the ruling prince for the wartime period, but refused the Hungarian crown and the title "king". The uprisings lasted for years. The Hungarian Kuruc army, although taking over most of the country, lost the main battle at Trencsén (1708). Three years later, because of the growing desertion, defeatism, and low morale,

9504-432: The disarmament of the Hungarian army. Disarmament meant that Hungary was to remain without a national defence at a time of particular vulnerability. During the rule of Károlyi's pacifist cabinet, Hungary lost control over approximately 75% of its pre-war territories (325,411 square kilometres (125,642 sq mi)) without a fight and was subject to foreign occupation. The Little Entente , sensing an opportunity, invaded

9636-477: The divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously, John Zápolya and Ferdinand I of the Habsburg dynasty . With the conquest of Buda by the Turks in 1541, Hungary was divided into three parts and remained so until the end of the 17th century. The north-western part, termed as Royal Hungary , was annexed by the Habsburgs who ruled as kings of Hungary. The eastern part of the kingdom became independent as

9768-639: The eastward expansion of German settlement beyond the Elbe - Saale line which marked the limit of Old High German . This process started in the 11th century, and all the East Central German dialects are a result of this expansion. "Judeo-German", the precursor of the Yiddish language, is attested in the 12th–13th centuries, as a variety of Middle High German written in Hebrew characters. The Middle High German period

9900-516: The economic situation had deteriorated (strikes in factories were organised by leftist and pacifist movements) and uprisings in the army had become common. In the capital cities, the Austrian and Hungarian leftist liberal movements and their leaders supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. Austria-Hungary signed a general armistice in Padua on 3 November 1918. In October 1918, Hungary's union with Austria

10032-688: The example of Good King Arthur who with knightly spirit knew how to strive for praise. In his day He lived so well That he wore the crown of honour And his name still does so. The truth of this is known To his countrymen: They affirm that he still lives today: He won such fame that Although his body died His name lives on. Of sinful shame He will forever be free Who follows his example. Commentary: This text shows many typical features of Middle High German poetic language. Most Middle High German words survive into modern German in some form or other: this passage contains only one word ( jehen 'say' 14) which has since disappeared from

10164-456: The following consonant spellings: The charts show the vowel and consonant systems of classical MHG. The spellings indicated are the standard spellings used in modern editions; there is much more variation in the manuscripts. Notes: MHG diphthongs are indicated by the spellings ⟨ei⟩ , ⟨ie⟩ , ⟨ou⟩ , ⟨öu⟩ and ⟨eu⟩ , ⟨üe⟩ , ⟨uo⟩ , and they have

10296-504: The following vowel spellings: Grammars (as opposed to textual editions) often distinguish between ⟨ë⟩ and ⟨e⟩ , the former indicating the mid-open /ɛ/ which derived from Germanic /e/ , the latter (often with a dot beneath it) indicating the mid-close /e/ which results from primary umlaut of short /a/ . No such orthographic distinction is made in MHG manuscripts. The standardised orthography of MHG editions uses

10428-1113: The impetus for this set of social changes came largely from France, many of the new words were either loans from French or influenced by French terms. The French loans mainly cover the areas of chivalry, warfare and equipment, entertainment, and luxury goods: Two highly productive suffixes were borrowed from French in this period: The text is the opening of Hartmann von Aue 's Iwein ( c.  1200 ) Swer an rehte güete wendet sîn gemüete, dem volget sælde und êre. des gît gewisse lêre künec Artûs der guote, der mit rîters muote nâch lobe kunde strîten. er hât bî sînen zîten gelebet alsô schône daz er der êren krône dô truoc und noch sîn name treit. des habent die wârheit sîne lantliute: sî jehent er lebe noch hiute: er hât den lop erworben, ist im der lîp erstorben, sô lebet doch iemer sîn name. er ist lasterlîcher schame iemer vil gar erwert, der noch nâch sînem site vert. [1] [5] [10] [15] [20] Whoever to true goodness Turns his mind He will meet with fortune and honour. We are taught this by

10560-748: The income of the French king (estimated at 17 tonnes) and was double the receipts of the English Crown. Andrew II issued the Diploma Andreanum which secured the special privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons and is considered the first autonomy law in the world. He led the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217, setting up the largest royal army in the history of Crusades. His Golden Bull of 1222

10692-401: The language. But many words have changed their meaning substantially. Muot (6) means 'state of mind' (cognates with mood ), where modern German Mut means courage. Êre (3) can be translated with 'honour', but is quite a different concept of honour from modern German Ehre ; the medieval term focuses on reputation and the respect accorded to status in society. The text

10824-736: The larger framework of Dietrich's exile. Joachim Heinzle largely dismisses such attempts at deducing the roots of the poem as unfruitful. An alternative version of the events of the Rabenschlacht is found in the Old Norse Thidrekssaga . There we are told that King Ermanrik was misled into attacking his nephew Didrik because of his counsellor Sifka (Sibeche in Middle High German), who was avenging Ermanrik's rape of his wife by leading him to his doom. Didrik goes into exile at Attila's court and makes an attempt to return to his kingdom with

10956-405: The last campaign. Dietrich learns that Ermenrich has assembled a large army at Ravenna . The army heads to Bern ( Verona ), where Dietrich's young brother Diether has remained. Dietrich decides to leave Etzel's children with Diether in the care of the older warrior Elsan, and marches to Ravenna. The children, however, under the pretext of viewing the city, convince a reluctant Elsan to let them leave

11088-624: The leadership of Grand Prince Álmos and his son Árpád : founders of the Árpád dynasty , the Hungarian ruling dynasty and the Hungarian state. The Árpád dynasty claimed to be a direct descendant of Attila the Hun. The Hungarians took possession of the area in a pre-planned manner, with a long move-in between 862 and 895. The rising Principality of Hungary ("Western Tourkia" in medieval Greek sources) conducted successful fierce campaigns and raids , from Constantinople to as far as today's Spain. The Hungarians defeated three major East Frankish imperial armies between 907 and 910. A defeat at

11220-505: The modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Prime Minister István Tisza and his cabinet tried to avoid the outbreak and escalating of a war in Europe, but their diplomatic efforts were unsuccessful. Austria-Hungary drafted over 4 million soldiers from the Kingdom of Hungary on the side of Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey. The troops raised in

11352-726: The neuter singular, is used only with prepositions : von diu , ze diu , etc. In all the other genders and in the plural it is substituted with the dative: von dëm , von dër , von dën . Middle High German nouns were declined according to four cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative ), two numbers (singular and plural ) and three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), much like Modern High German, though there are several important differences. Verbs were conjugated according to three moods ( indicative , subjunctive (conjunctive) and imperative ), three persons, two numbers (singular and plural ) and two tenses ( present tense and preterite ) There

11484-690: The new monarch Charles IV sympathised with the pacifists. With great difficulty, the Central Powers stopped and repelled the attacks of the Russian Empire. The Eastern Front of the Allied ( Entente ) Powers completely collapsed. The Austro-Hungarian Empire then withdrew from all defeated countries. Despite great success on the Eastern Front, Germany suffered complete defeat on the Western Front . By 1918,

11616-463: The official language of administration. King Saint Ladislaus completed the work of King Saint Stephen , consolidating the Hungarian state's power and strengthening Christianity . His charismatic personality, strategic leadership and military talents resulted in the termination of internal power struggles and foreign military threats. The wife of the Croatian king Demetrius Zvonimir was Ladislaus's sister. At Helen's request, Ladislaus intervened in

11748-485: The original manuscripts : A particular problem is that many manuscripts are of much later date than the works they contain; as a result, they bear the signs of later scribes having modified the spellings, with greater or lesser consistency, in accord with conventions of their time. In addition, there is considerable regional variation in the spellings that appear in the original texts, which modern editions largely conceal. The standardised orthography of MHG editions uses

11880-435: The original nominal phrase. The possessive pronouns mîn, dîn, sîn, ir, unser, iuwer are used like adjectives and hence take on adjective endings following the normal rules. The inflected forms of the article depend on the number, the case and the gender of the corresponding noun. The definite article has the same plural forms for all three genders. Definite article (strong) The instrumental case , only existing in

12012-490: The passage of antisemitic laws and, because of the continued isolation of the Little Entente, economic and then political gravitation towards Italy and Germany . The Great Depression further exacerbated the situation, and the popularity of fascist politicians increased, such as Gyula Gömbös and Ferenc Szálasi , promising economic and social recovery. Horthy's nationalist agenda reached its apogee in 1938 and 1940, when

12144-651: The peasantry. Lajos Kossuth emerged as a leader of the lower gentry in the Parliament. A remarkable upswing started as the nation concentrated its forces on modernisation even though the Habsburg monarchs obstructed all important liberal laws relating to civil and political rights and economic reforms. Many reformers ( Lajos Kossuth , Mihály Táncsics ) were imprisoned by the authorities. On 15 March 1848, mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda enabled Hungarian reformists to push through

12276-467: The poem as particularly heroic, with Millet nevertheless noting that the poem does not criticize the use of violence. The poem makes numerous allusions to the Nibelungenlied , beginning with the opening stanza, which cites the opening stanza of the C version of the Nibelungenlied . Edward Haymes and Susan Samples suggest that the poem exists as a kind of prequel to the Nibelungenlied. In the course of

12408-401: The poem is notable for its hyperbole in its depictions of violence—the battle at Ravenna takes twelve days and the warriors literally wade in blood among mountains of corpses—and emotions, particularly of grief. The numbers of warriors involved are similarly exaggerated, with Ermenrich's army including 1,100,00 ( eilf hundert tūsent ) warriors or more. Neither Werner Hoffmann nor Victor Millet see

12540-539: The poem, characters from the Nibelungenlied fight on the side of Ermenrich, including Siegfried , Gunther and Volker, as well as their enemies from the Nibelungenlied , Liudegast and Liudeger. Siegfried is defeated by Dietrich and forced to plea for his life, confirming Dietrich's superiority. Michael Curschmann holds the encounters between Dietrich and Siegfried here and in the Rosengarten zu Worms to have their origins in an oral tradition. However, Elisabeth Lienert sees

12672-549: The regime swelled. Following the firing on peaceful demonstrations by Soviet soldiers and secret police, and rallies throughout the country on 23 October 1956, protesters took to the streets in Budapest, initiating the 1956 Revolution . In an effort to quell the chaos, Nagy returned as premier, promised free elections, and took Hungary out of the Warsaw Pact. The violence nonetheless continued as revolutionary militias sprung up against

12804-616: The revision of the treaty quickly rose to the top of the national political agenda, the Horthy government was not willing to resort to military intervention to do so. The initial years of the Horthy regime were preoccupied with putsch attempts by Charles IV , the Austro-Hungarian pretender ; continued suppression of communists; and a migration crisis triggered by the Trianon territorial changes. The government's actions continued to drift right with

12936-686: The right") "right wing". This points to the idea that the Magyar Union before the Conquest formed the "right wing" (= western wing) of the Khazar military forces. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország , composed of magyar ('Hungarian') and ország ('country'). The name "Magyar", which refers to the people of the country, more accurately reflects the name of the country in some other languages such as Turkish , Persian and other languages as Magyaristan or Land of Magyars or similar. The word magyar

13068-678: The rule of the local Slavic tribes and remnants of the Avars. By the mid-9th century, the Balaton Principality , also known as Lower Pannonia, was established west of the Danube as part of the Frankish March of Pannonia . Foundation of the Hungarian state is connected to the Hungarian conquerors , who arrived from the Pontic-Caspian steppe as a confederation of seven tribes . According to

13200-659: The same author, possibly a certain Heinrich der Vogler , but stylistic differences have led more recent scholarship to abandon this idea. Die Rabenschlacht concerns a failed attempt by the exiled Dietrich to reclaim his kingdom in Northern Italy from his treacherous uncle Ermenrich , with the help of an army provided by Etzel , king of the Huns . In the course of this attempt, Dietrich's younger brother and Etzel's young sons by his wife Helche are killed by Dietrich's former vassal Witege outside of Ravenna . Witege then flees into

13332-433: The sea and is rescued by a mermaid rather than fighting against Dietrich. The poem may be a dim reflection of the death of Attila's son Ellac at the Battle of Nedao in 454, combined with Theodoric the Great's siege of Ravenna in 491–493. It would therefore be one of the oldest parts of the legends about Dietrich von Bern. Die Rabenschlacht begins a year after the end of Dietrichs Flucht , with Dietrich still in exile at

13464-545: The sea and very nearly catches him, but Witege rides into the sea where he is rescued by the sea-spirit/ mermaid (MHG merminne ) Wâchilt who was his ancestress (identifiable more specifically as his great-grandmother in Swedish version of the Þiðreks saga ). She tells him that Dietrich was so hot with anger that his armor was soft, and Witige could have easily defeated him. Now, however, the armor had hardened, and thirty Witiges could not defeat Dietrich. Dietrich meanwhile mourns on

13596-399: The seashore and breaks into despairing laments. He recognizes that the wounds on the young warriors bodies could only have been made by Witege's sword Mimming. Witege is then spotted; Dietrich jumps on his horse to attack, but Witege flees on his horse Schemming. Witege's uncle Rienolt, however, is also with him, and he turns to fight Dietrich and is slain. Dietrich pursues Witege to the edge of

13728-459: The seventh nation to be represented in space by him. In the 1980s, however, living standards steeply declined again because of a worldwide recession to which communism was unable to respond. By the time Kádár died in 1989, the Soviet Union was in steep decline and a younger generation of reformists saw liberalisation as the solution to economic and social issues. Hungary's transition from communism to capitalism ( rendszerváltás , "regime change")

13860-565: The shore. He goes back to Ravenna, where Ermenrich has fortified himself, and storms the city. Ermernich escapes, however, and Dietrich orders the city burned, as the inhabitants surrender. Rüdiger rides back to Hunland to bring Etzel the news of his sons deaths; however, Orte and Scharpfe's horses arrive at Etzelburg with bloody saddles. Helche is beside herself, but Rüdiger is able to calm her. Etzel sees that his sons deaths are not Dietrich's fault, and Dietrich returns to Etzel's court and back into Etzel and Helche's good graces. Die Rabenschlacht

13992-574: The south. Hungary formally entered World War II as an Axis power on 26 June 1941, declaring war on the Soviet Union after unidentified planes bombed Kassa , Munkács , and Rahó . Hungarian troops fought on the Eastern Front for two years. Despite early success at the Battle of Uman , the government began seeking a secret peace pact with the Allies after the Second Army suffered catastrophic losses at

14124-457: The successes of the Hungarian revolutionary army, Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph I asked for help from the "Gendarme of Europe", Tsar Nicholas I , whose Russian armies invaded Hungary. This made Artúr Görgey surrender in August 1849. The leader of the Austrian army, Julius Jacob von Haynau , became governor of Hungary for a few months and ordered the execution of the 13 Martyrs of Arad , leaders of

14256-464: The tendency of modern editions of MHG texts to use normalised spellings based on this variety (usually called "Classical MHG"), which make the written language appear more consistent than it actually is in the manuscripts. Scholars are uncertain as to whether the literary language reflected a supra-regional spoken language of the courts. An important development in this period was the Ostsiedlung ,

14388-618: The territory between the Alps and the area west of the Danube River from 16 to 15 BC, the Danube being the frontier of the empire. In 14 BC, Pannonia , the western part of the Carpathian Basin , which includes the west of today’s Hungary, was recognised by emperor Augustus in the Res Gestae Divi Augusti as part of the Roman Empire. The area south-east of Pannonia was organised as

14520-590: The third of three feet before the caesura, and five or even six additional feet. Heinzle prints the following example as typical: In some stanzas, the rhymes at the caesura in lines 1 and 2 are absent, giving a scheme: x|b, x|b, c|c. It is also possible to interpret the stanza as consisting of six shorter lines, with rhyme scheme ABABCC. Consequently, the same stanza as above is printed in the edition by Elisabeth Lienert and Dorit Wolter as: Die Rabenschlacht has been described as "elegiac" and "sentimental," particularly in relation to Dietrichs Flucht . Stylistically,

14652-469: The throne, who in 1433 also became Holy Roman Emperor . The first Hungarian Bible translation was completed in 1439. For half a year in 1437, there was an antifeudal and anticlerical peasant revolt in Transylvania which was strongly influenced by Hussite ideas. From a small noble family in Transylvania, John Hunyadi grew to become one of the country's most powerful lords, thanks to his capabilities as

14784-448: The virus had spread to every part of the country. In February 2021, after Hungary became the first EU country and one of the first in the former Warsaw Pact to authorize Russian and Chinese vaccines , it briefly enjoyed one of the highest vaccination rates in Europe. Relations between Hungary and its Western partners have strained, because Orbán's government has maintained relations with Russia despite sanctions against Russia after

14916-468: The vowels in brackets were dropped in rapid speech. The preterite conjugation went as follows: The present tense conjugation went as follows: The vowels in brackets were dropped in rapid speech. The preterite conjugation went as follows: In the Middle High German period, the rise of a courtly culture and the changing nature of knighthood was reflected in changes to the vocabulary. Since

15048-525: The way for Ottoman preeminence. In 1521, the strongest Hungarian fortress in the South, Nándorfehérvár (today's Belgrade , Serbia), fell to the Turks . The early appearance of Protestantism further worsened internal relations in the country. After some 150 years of wars with the Hungarians and other states, the Ottomans gained a decisive victory over the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, where King Louis II died while fleeing. Amid political chaos,

15180-489: The west. Hungary has a population of 9.5 million, mostly ethnic Hungarians and a significant Romani minority . Hungarian is the official language and Budapest is the country's capital and largest city . Prior to the foundation of the Hungarian state, various peoples settled in the territory of present-day Hungary, most notably the Celts , Romans , Huns , Germanic peoples , Avars and Slavs . The Principality of Hungary

15312-456: Was captured in 1541, opening roughly a 150 years long period when the country was divided into three parts: Royal Hungary , loyal to the Habsburgs ; Ottoman Hungary ; and the largely independent Principality of Transylvania . The reunited Hungary came under Habsburg rule at the turn of the 18th century, fighting a war of independence in 1703–1711, and a war of independence in 1848–1849 until

15444-728: Was elected to a parliamentary supermajority . The legislature consequently approved a new constitution , among other sweeping governmental and legal changes including the establishment of new parliamentary constituencies, decreasing the number of parliamentarians, and shifting to single-round parliamentary elections. Since Orbán's election, Hungary has undergone democratic backsliding and has been characterized as an illiberal democracy , hybrid regime , kleptocracy , dominant-party system , and mafia state . Orbán has publicly embraced illiberalism, and has characterized Hungary as an "illiberal Christian democracy". It has also received criticism regarding LGBT rights in Hungary . During

15576-427: Was a present participle, a past participle and a verbal noun that somewhat resembles the Latin gerund , but that only existed in the genitive and dative cases. An important distinction is made between strong verbs (that exhibited ablaut ) and weak verbs (that didn't). Furthermore, there were also some irregular verbs. The present tense conjugation went as follows: The bold vowels demonstrate umlaut ;

15708-685: Was a successful military leader and an enlightened patron of the arts and learning. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana , was Europe's greatest collection of historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century, and second only in size to the Vatican Library . Items from the Bibliotheca Corviniana were inscribed on UNESCO 's Memory of the World Register in 2005. The serfs and common people considered him

15840-407: Was crowned as King of Hungary . The era witnessed impressive economic development. The formerly backward Hungarian economy became relatively modern and industrialised by the turn of the 20th century, although agriculture remained dominant until 1890. In 1873, the old capital Buda and Óbuda were officially united with Pest , creating the new metropolis of Budapest. Many of the state institutions and

15972-475: Was defeated near Pest by the royal army of King Ladislaus IV . As with later invasions, it was repelled handily, the Mongols losing much of their invading force. The Kingdom of Hungary reached one of its greatest extents during the Árpádian kings, yet royal power was weakened at the end of their rule in 1301. After a destructive period of interregnum (1301–1308), the first Angevin king, Charles I of Hungary –

16104-540: Was dissolved. Following the First World War, Hungary underwent a period of profound political upheaval, beginning with the Aster Revolution in 1918, which brought the social-democratic Mihály Károlyi to power as prime minister. The Hungarian Royal Honvéd army still had more than 1,400,000 soldiers when Károlyi was installed. Károlyi yielded to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson 's demand for pacifism by ordering

16236-432: Was established in the late 9th century by Álmos and his son Árpád through the conquest of the Carpathian Basin . King Stephen I ascended the throne in 1000, converting his realm to a Christian kingdom . The medieval Kingdom of Hungary was a European power, reaching its height in the 14th–15th centuries . After a long period of Ottoman wars , Hungary's forces were defeated at the Battle of Mohács and its capital

16368-536: Was formed. This empire had the second largest area in Europe (after the Russian Empire ), and it was the third most populous (after Russia and the German Empire ). The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments from two capital cities, with a common monarch and common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph I

16500-589: Was peaceful and prompted by economic stagnation, domestic political pressure, and changing relations with other Warsaw Pact countries. Although the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party began Round Table Talks with various opposition groups in March 1989, the reburial of Imre Nagy as a revolutionary martyr that June is widely considered the symbolic end of communism in Hungary. Free elections were held in May 1990 , and

16632-624: Was proclaimed regent of the reestablished Kingdom of Hungary , inaugurating the so-called "Horthy era" ( Horthy-kor ). The new government worked quickly to normalise foreign relations while turning a blind eye to a White Terror that swept through the countryside; extrajudicial killings of suspected communists and Jews lasted well into 1920. On 4 June 1920, the Treaty of Trianon established new borders for Hungary. The country lost 71% of its territory and 66% of its pre-war population, as well as many sources of raw materials and its sole port at Fiume . Though

16764-486: Was recognised as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom . Applying to Pope Sylvester II , Stephen received the insignia of royalty (including probably a part of the Holy Crown of Hungary ) from the papacy. By 1006, Stephen consolidated his power and started sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a Western-style feudal state . The country switched to using Latin for administration purposes, and until as late as 1844, Latin remained

16896-576: Was reduced to one-tenth of prerevolutionary levels. In 1968, the New Economic Mechanism introduced free-market elements into the socialist command economy. From the 1960s through the late 1980s, Hungary was often referred to as "the happiest barrack" within the Eastern bloc. During the latter part of the Cold War Hungary's GDP per capita was fourth only to East Germany , Czechoslovakia , and

17028-444: Was removed from Ottoman rule by 1718. The last raid into Hungary by the Ottoman vassals Tatars from Crimea took place in 1717. The constrained Habsburg Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. The ethnic composition of Hungary was fundamentally changed as a consequence of the prolonged warfare with the Turks. A large part of the country became devastated, population growth

17160-430: Was stunted, and many smaller settlements perished. The Austrian-Habsburg government settled large groups of Serbs and other Slavs in the depopulated south, and settled Germans (called Danube Swabians ) in various areas, but Hungarians were not allowed to settle or re-settle in the south of the Carpathian Basin. Between 1703 and 1711, there was a large-scale war of independence led by Francis II Rákóczi , who after

17292-453: Was the collective name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. Peter B. Golden also considers the suggestion of Árpád Berta that the name derives from Khazar Turkic ongar (oŋ "right", oŋar- "to make something better, to put (it) right", oŋgar-  "to make something better, to put (it) right", oŋaru "towards

17424-530: Was the first constitution in Continental Europe . The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the parliament ( parlamentum publicum ). In 1241–1242, the kingdom received a major blow with the Mongol (Tatar) invasion . Up to half of Hungary's population of 2 million were victims of the invasion. King Béla IV let Cumans and Jassic people into

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