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63-493: The role of Quasimodo has been played by many actors in film and stage adaptations, including Lon Chaney (1923), Charles Laughton (1939), Anthony Quinn (1956), and Anthony Hopkins (1982) as well as Tom Hulce in the 1996 Disney animated adaptation , Steve Lemme in the 2023 comedy Quasi , and most recently Angelo Del Vecchio in the Notre Dame de Paris revival . In 2010, a British researcher found evidence suggesting there

126-504: A baby and that anybody else would have drowned him had Frollo not stepped in and adopted him. Quasimodo nevertheless grows up to be a kind-hearted young man who yearns to join the outside world. Quasimodo sneaks out of the cathedral during the Festival of Fools, where he is crowned the "King of Fools". While there, he meets Esmeralda, with whom he falls in love. Two of Frollo's guards ruin the moment by throwing tomatoes at him and binding him to

189-551: A beautiful circus performer named Madellaine (voiced by Jennifer Love Hewitt ), who ultimately reveals that she is aware that the gargoyles are alive. His love for Madellaine is briefly strained when he learns she was actually working on behalf of a greedy magician named Sarousch who plans to steal a particularly valuable bell called La Fidele, from Notre Dame. Madellaine's true feelings for Quasimodo overcome her reluctant loyalty to Sarousch, however, and she aids Quasimodo in bringing Sarousch to justice. Quasimodo forgives Madellaine and

252-493: A competitive advantage over other actors. He was the complete package. Casting crews knew that they could place him in virtually any part and he would thrive. In some films his skill allowed him to play dual roles. An extreme case of this was the film Outside the Law (1920), where he played a character who shot and killed another character, whom he also was playing. As Quasimodo , the bell ringer of Notre Dame Cathedral , and Erik ,

315-454: A great favourite of popular historians and historical writers of the 19th century, appearing in historical novels including The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (1831) by Victor Hugo , Crichton (1837) by William Harrison Ainsworth , and La Reine Margot (1845) by Alexandre Dumas ; both the last two tales centred on the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre . The former site of the gibbet is featured in

378-399: A little hillocke ... [with] fourteen pillars of free stone". The structure was also used for displaying the bodies of those executed elsewhere; in 1416 the remains of Pierre des Essarts  [ fr ] were finally handed back to his family after three years at Montfaucon. Like an alarming number of other victims, Essarts had been one of the four royal treasurers . The gibbet was

441-473: A master of makeup. Critical praise and a gross of over $ 2 million put Chaney on the map as America's foremost character actor . Chaney exhibited great adaptability with makeup in more conventional crime and adventure films, such as The Penalty (1920), in which he played a gangster with both legs amputated. Chaney appeared in ten films directed by Tod Browning , often portraying disguised and/or mutilated characters, including carnival knife-thrower Alonzo

504-609: A retreat, hiring Paul R. Williams . Located in the Inyo National Forest , the cabin still stands, though it is not open to the public. Following his death, Chaney's famous makeup case was donated to the Los Angeles County Museum by his widow, Hazel. The case is occasionally displayed for the public. The stage theater at the Colorado Springs Civic Auditorium is also named after the actor. There

567-426: A rope, and rescues her by taking her up to the top of the cathedral, where he poignantly shouts "Sanctuary!" to the onlookers below. Esmeralda is terrified of Quasimodo at first, but gradually recognizes his kind heart and becomes his friend. He watches over her and protects her, and at one point saves her from Frollo when the mad priest sexually assaults her in her room. In one instance Esmeralda also sees Phoebus from

630-554: A sign of royal justice in the late 13th century, the gibbet was later institutionalised under King Charles IV where the wooden scaffold was converted into stone with sixteen columns at a height of 10 meters. It was used until 1627 and then dismantled in 1760. A smaller gibbet was erected nearby for ceremonial purposes rather than for execution. As reconstructed in images by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc it had three sides, and 45 compartments in which people could be both hanged and hung after execution elsewhere. A miniature of about 1460 from

693-530: A son, Creighton Tull Chaney (later known as Lon Chaney Jr. ) was born. The Chaneys continued touring, settling in California in 1910. Marital troubles developed and on April 30, 1913, Cleva went to the Majestic Theater in downtown Los Angeles, where Lon was managing the " Kolb and Dill " show, and attempted suicide by swallowing mercuric chloride . The suicide attempt failed, but it ruined her singing career;

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756-471: A throat hemorrhage on August 26, 1930, in a Los Angeles, California hospital. His funeral was held on August 28 in Glendale, California . Honorary pallbearers included Paul Bern , Hunt Stromberg , Irving Thalberg , Louis B. Mayer , Lionel Barrymore , Wallace Beery , Tod Browning , Lew Cody , and Ramon Novarro . The U.S. Marine Corps provided a chaplain and Honor Guard for his funeral. While his funeral

819-510: A week." After leaving the studio, Chaney struggled for the first year as a character actor. It was not until he played a substantial role in William S. Hart 's picture Riddle Gawne (1918) that Chaney's talents as a character actor were truly recognized by the industry. Universal presented Chaney, Dorothy Phillips , and William Stowell as a team in The Piper's Price (1917). In succeeding films,

882-714: A wheel to torment him, rousing a crowd of onlookers to join in. Frollo refuses to help as punishment for his disobedience. Esmeralda takes pity on him and frees him after Phoebus fails to get Frollo to intervene. After Esmeralda escapes, Frollo confronts Quasimodo, who apologizes and returns to the bell tower. He later befriends Esmeralda when she claims sanctuary from Frollo in the cathedral, and he helps her flee from Frollo's men in gratitude. Though saddened to see that Esmeralda has romantic love for Captain Phoebus rather than himself, Quasimodo cares for her enough to learn to respect her choice. Frollo eventually locates Esmeralda and Phoebus at

945-558: Is a street named after Chaney in San Antonio, Texas . Approximately 102 of the 157 films made by Chaney are currently classified as lost films . A number of the remaining 55 films exist only in extremely truncated form or suffer from severe decomposition. Two of Chaney’s films ( The Phantom of the Opera and He Who Gets Slapped ) are inducted into Library of Congress ’ National Film Registry . Lost film Chaney does not appear in

1008-467: Is alluded to in the Disney film). In the beginning of the film, a Romani mother tries to bring the hunchbacked infant into Notre Dame with her for sanctuary, but the antizigan Judge Claude Frollo ( Tony Jay ) chases and inadvertently kills her. Frollo attempts to drown the baby in a nearby well upon seeing his deformity, but the church's Archdeacon stops him and demands that he atone for his crime by raising

1071-464: Is finally accepted into society by the citizens of Paris as they celebrate the liberation of the city from Frollo. In Disney's 2002 direct-to-video sequel, The Hunchback of Notre Dame II , Quasimodo (again voiced by Hulce) reappears, once again as the protagonist. He remains a bell-ringer, still living in Notre Dame with the gargoyles. This time, he is able to move around Paris freely. He finds love in

1134-407: Is later entangled in an attempted murder – committed by Frollo, who had stabbed Phoebus in a jealous rage after spying on Esmeralda and Phoebus having a night of passion – and is sentenced to be hanged. As she is being forced to pray at the steps of Notre Dame just before being marched off to the gallows, Quasimodo, who has been watching the occasion from an upper balcony in Notre Dame, slides down with

1197-452: Is not deaf, and is capable of fluent speech. He has three anthropomorphic gargoyle friends named Victor, Hugo, and Laverne. Also he is much less tragic in the Disney film than in the original novel, because his mother cared for him more in the Disney film than she did in the original novel where she went as far as to actually abandon Quasimodo on the steps of Notre Dame as opposed to Frollo merely lying to Quasimodo about his mother (though this

1260-446: Is one of the most well-known moments in silent film," wrote Meg Shields in 2020. "Arguably, it’s one of the most horrifying images ever put on screen." However, Chaney's portrayals sought to elicit a degree of sympathy and pathos among viewers not overwhelmingly terrified or repulsed by the monstrous disfigurements of these victims of fate. In a 1925 autobiographical article for Movie magazine, he wrote: "I wanted to remind people that

1323-450: Is regarded as one of the most versatile and powerful actors of cinema, renowned for his characterizations of tortured, often grotesque and afflicted, characters and for his groundbreaking artistry with makeup. Chaney was known for his starring roles in such silent horror films as The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923) and The Phantom of the Opera (1925). His ability to transform himself using makeup techniques that he developed earned him

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1386-478: The Grandes Chroniques de France by Jean Fouquet , and also a print of 1609, show a somewhat less substantial structure than that in the reconstructions, which may, like others by Viollet-le-Duc, make the structure grander and more complex than was actually the case. The miniature shows bodies hanging from beams running across the central space, resting on the piers, but Viollet-le-Duc shows slabs running round

1449-772: The Gibbet of Montfaucon beyond the city walls, passing by the Convent of the Filles-Dieu , a home for 200 reformed prostitutes, and the leper colony of Saint-Lazare . After reaching the Gibbet, he lies next to Esmeralda's corpse, where it had been unceremoniously thrown after the execution. He stays at Montfaucon, and eventually dies of starvation, clutching the body of the deceased Esmeralda. Years later, an excavation group exhumes both of their skeletons, which have become intertwined. When they try to separate them, Quasimodo's bones crumble to dust. In

1512-522: The "phantom" of the Paris Opera House , Chaney created two of the most grotesquely deformed characters in film history. " Phantom … became a legend almost immediately," wrote the Los Angeles Times in 1990. "The newspapers of the day reported that women fainted, children bawled and grown men stepped outside for fresh air after the famous unmasking scene." "The unmasking of the titular Phantom

1575-532: The Archdeacon walks out of Notre Dame. Frollo lusts after a beautiful Romani girl named Esmeralda , and enlists Quasimodo in trying to kidnap her. (She is later revealed to be Agnes, the baby Quasimodo was switched with.) Captain Phoebus de Châteaupers arrives to stop the kidnapping and captures Quasimodo, unaware that Quasimodo was merely following Frollo's orders. The deaf judge Florian Barbedienne sentences him to an hour of flogging and another hour of humiliation on

1638-580: The Armless in The Unknown (1927) opposite Joan Crawford . Around the same time, Chaney also co-starred with Conrad Nagel , Marceline Day , Henry B. Walthall , and Polly Moran in the Tod Browning horror film London After Midnight (1927), one of the most sought after lost films . His final film role was The Unholy Three (1930), a sound remake of his 1925 silent film of the same name . The 1930 remake

1701-546: The Court of Miracles. He sentences Esmeralda to death, and has Quasimodo chained up in the bell tower. Quasimodo breaks free, however, and rescues Esmeralda from execution. Phoebus breaks free from his cage and rallies the citizens of Paris against Frollo's tyranny. From the bell tower, Quasimodo and the gargoyles watch the citizens fighting Frollo's army. They pour molten lead onto the streets, preventing Frollo and his soldiers from breaking in. However, Frollo successfully manages to enter

1764-595: The Deaf and Blind ) in 1874, and Chaney's parents met there. His great-grandfather was congressman John Chaney from Ohio. Both of Chaney's parents were deaf and, as a child of deaf adults , Chaney became skilled in American Sign Language . He entered a stage career in 1902, and began traveling with popular vaudeville and theater acts. In 1905, Chaney, then 22, met and married 16-year-old singer Cleva Creighton (Frances Cleveland Creighton) and in 1906, their only child,

1827-454: The Hollywood studios knew about film stemmed from their experience with theater makeup, but this did not always transfer well to the big screen, especially as the film quality improved over time. Makeup departments were not yet in place during Chaney's time. Prior to the mid-20s, actors were expected to do their own makeup. In the absence of such specialized professions, Chaney's skills gave him

1890-523: The Kolb and Dill company, a recently divorced chorus girl named Hazel Hastings. The new couple gained custody of Chaney's 10-year-old son Creighton, who had resided in various homes and boarding schools since Chaney's divorce from Cleva in 1913. By 1917, Chaney was a prominent actor in the studio, but his salary did not reflect this status. When Chaney asked for a raise, studio executive William Sistrom replied, "You'll never be worth more than one hundred dollars

1953-571: The Romani people ate her child) and taken to Paris. He is found abandoned in Notre Dame (on the foundlings' bed, where orphans and unwanted children are left to public charity) on Quasimodo Sunday , the First Sunday after Easter, by Claude Frollo , the Archdeacon of Notre Dame, who adopts the baby, names him after the day the baby was found, and brings him up to be the bell-ringer of the cathedral. Due to

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2016-461: The cathedral balcony and pleadingly convinces Quasimodo to go down and look for him, but Phoebus is repulsed by Quasimodo's appearance and refuses to visit Notre Dame to see her. After an uneasy respite, a mob of Paris's Truands led by Clopin Trouillefou storms Notre Dame, and although Quasimodo tries to fend them off by throwing stones and bricks down onto the mob and even pours deadly molten lead,

2079-480: The cathedral. He tries to kill Quasimodo, who is mourning Esmeralda, believing her to be dead. The two struggle briefly until Quasimodo throws Frollo to the floor and denounces him, finally seeing him for what he is. Esmeralda awakens and Quasimodo rushes her to safety. He then fights the wrathful Frollo, who reveals the truth about his mother to him. Both fall from the balcony, but Phoebus catches Quasimodo and pulls him to safety, while Frollo falls to his death. Quasimodo

2142-568: The child as his son. Fearing God 's wrath, Frollo reluctantly agrees, and adopts the child in the hope that he will be useful to him one day. Frollo cruelly names the child Quasimodo, which in the film is Latin for "half-formed". Over the years he raises Quasimodo with cruelty, forbidding him to leave the tower and teaching him that the world is a wicked, sinful place, and that the Parisian people will reject him due to his deformity. He also lies to Quasimodo about his mother, telling him she abandoned him as

2205-449: The crystal vase and presses them passionately on her heart. Among the actors who have played Quasimodo over the years in each adaptation of the novel are: In Disney 's 1996 animated film adaptation of The Hunchback of Notre Dame , Quasimodo is a very different character than in the novel. He was voiced by Tom Hulce and animated by James Baxter . Unlike in the novel, Quasimodo has two eyes, with his left one only partially covered. He

2268-602: The ensuing scandal and divorce forced Chaney out of the theater and into film. The time spent there is not clearly known, but between the years 1912 and 1917, Chaney worked under contract for Universal Studios doing bit or character parts. His skill with makeup gained him many parts in the highly competitive casting atmosphere. During this time, Chaney befriended the husband-wife director team of Joe De Grasse and Ida May Park , who gave him substantial roles in their pictures and further encouraged him to play macabre characters. In 1915, Chaney married one of his former colleagues in

2331-460: The existing footage Gibbet of Montfaucon The Gibbet of Montfaucon ( French : Gibet de Montfaucon ) was the main gallows and gibbet of the Kings of France until the time of Louis XIII of France . It was used to execute criminals, often traitors , by hanging and to display their dead bodies as a warning to the population. It was a large structure located at the top of a small hill near

2394-401: The horror genre and stage makeup. He was also a highly skilled dancer, singer and comedian. Ray Bradbury once said of Chaney, "He was someone who acted out our psyches . He somehow got into the shadows inside our bodies; he was able to nail down some of our secret fears and put them on-screen. The history of Lon Chaney is the history of unrequited loves. He brings that part of you out into

2457-422: The hunchback and Hugo were living in the same town of Saint Germain-des-Prés in 1833, and in early drafts of Les Misérables , Hugo named the main character "Jean Trajin" (the same name as the unnamed hunchbacked carver's employee), but later changed it to " Jean Valjean ". Lon Chaney Leonidas Frank " Lon " Chaney (April 1, 1883 – August 26, 1930) was an American actor and makeup artist. He

2520-457: The loud ringing of the bells, Quasimodo also becomes deaf causing Frollo to teach him sign language. Although he is hated for his deformity, it is revealed that he is kind at heart. Though Quasimodo commits acts of violence in the novel, these are only undertaken when he is instructed by others. Looked upon by the general populace of Paris as a monster, he believes that Frollo is the only one who cares for him, and frequently accompanies him when

2583-564: The lowest types of humanity may have within them the capacity for supreme self-sacrifice. The dwarfed , misshapen beggar of the streets may have the noblest ideals. Most of my roles since The Hunchback, such as The Phantom of the Opera , He Who Gets Slapped , The Unholy Three , etc., have carried the theme of self-sacrifice or renunciation. These are the stories which I wish to do." Chaney referred to his expertise in both makeup and contorting his body to portray his subjects as "extraordinary characterization". Chaney's talents extended beyond

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2646-481: The men alternated playing lover, villain, or other man to the beautiful Phillips. They would occasionally be joined by Claire DuBrey , nearly making the trio a quartet of recurring actors from film to film. So successful were the films starring this group that Universal produced fourteen films from 1917 to 1919 with Chaney, Stowell, and Phillips. The films were usually directed by Joe De Grasse or his wife Ida May Park - both, friends of Chaney - at Universal. When Chaney

2709-478: The mob continues attacking until Phoebus and his soldiers arrive to fight and drive off the assailants. Unbeknownst to Quasimodo, Frollo lures Esmeralda outside, where he has her arrested and hanged. When Quasimodo sees Frollo smiling cruelly at Esmeralda's execution, he turns on his master and throws him to his death from the balcony in rage. Quasimodo cries in despair, lamenting "There is all that I ever loved!" He then leaves Notre Dame, never to return, and heads for

2772-590: The modern Place du Colonel Fabien in Paris, though during the Middle Ages it was outside the city walls and the surrounding area was mostly not built up, being occupied by institutions like the Hôpital Saint-Louis from 1607, and earlier the Convent of the Filles-Dieu ("Daughters of God"), a home for 200 reformed prostitutes , and the leper colony of St Lazare. First built during the reign of King Louis IX as

2835-428: The motion picture industry. He also earned the respect and admiration of numerous aspiring actors, to whom he offered mentoring assistance, and between takes on film sets he was always willing to share his professional observations with the cast and crew. During the filming of The Unknown (1927), Joan Crawford stated that she learned more about acting from watching Chaney work than from anyone else in her career. "It

2898-523: The nickname " The Man of a Thousand Faces ". Leonidas Frank Chaney was born in Colorado Springs, Colorado , to Frank H. Chaney (a barber) and Emma Alice Kennedy. His father was of English and French ancestry, and his mother was of Scottish, English, and Irish descent. Chaney's maternal grandfather, Jonathan Ralston Kennedy, founded the "Colorado School for the Education of Mutes" (now Colorado School for

2961-403: The novel, Quasimodo symbolically shows Esmeralda the difference between himself and the handsome yet self-centered Captain Phoebus , with whom the girl has become infatuated. He places two vases in her room: one is a beautiful crystal vase, yet broken and filled with dry, withered flowers; the other a humble pot, yet filled with beautiful, fragrant flowers. Esmeralda takes the withered flowers from

3024-445: The open, because you fear that you are not loved, you fear that you never will be loved, you fear there is some part of you that's grotesque, that the world will turn away from." Chaney and his second wife Hazel led a discreet private life distant from the Hollywood social scene. Chaney did minimal promotional work for his films and for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer , purposefully fostering a mysterious image, and he reportedly intentionally avoided

3087-418: The pillory. Phoebus ties Quasimodo up and has Pierre Torterue whip him in front of a jeering crowd. When Quasimodo calls to him for help, Frollo allows Quasimodo to be tortured as punishment for failing him. When Quasimodo calls for water, a child throws a wet rag at him. Seeing his thirst, Esmeralda approaches the public stocks and offers him a drink of water. It saves him and she captures his heart. Esmeralda

3150-427: The sides. Both show a substantial platform in masonry, which ran round a central space at ground level in the reconstructions, entered by a tunnel through the platform, closed by a gate. Another print of 1608 shows only two tiers of compartments rather than the three of Viollet-le-Duc. The English travel writer Thomas Coryat saw it at about the same time and described it as "the fairest gallows that I ever saw, built on

3213-573: The social scene in Hollywood. In the final five years of his film career (1925–1930), Chaney worked exclusively under contract to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, giving some of his most memorable performances. His portrayal of a tough-as-nails marine drill instructor in Tell It to the Marines (1926), one of his favorite films, earned him the affection of the Marine Corps , who made him their first honorary member from

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3276-510: The song " Werewolves of London " by Warren Zevon , both Chaney and his son Lon Chaney Jr are name-called in the last verse. Chaney has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , located on Hollywood Boulevard . In 1994, Al Hirschfeld 's caricature of Chaney was featured on a commemorative United States postage stamp . In 1929, Chaney built a stone cabin in the remote wilderness of the eastern Sierra Nevada near Big Pine, California as

3339-744: The title character in The Wolf Man (1941). In October 1997, both Chaneys appeared on commemorative US postage stamps as the Phantom of the Opera and the Wolf Man, with the set completed by Bela Lugosi as Count Dracula and Boris Karloff as Frankenstein's monster and the Mummy . Chaney is also the subject of the 2000 documentary feature, Lon Chaney: A Thousand Faces . The film was produced by silent film historian Kevin Brownlow and narrated by Kenneth Branagh . In

3402-431: The two pledge their love to each other. In August 2010, Adrian Glew, a Tate archivist, announced evidence for a real-life Quasimodo, a "humpbacked [stone] carver" who worked at Notre Dame during the 1820s. The evidence is contained in the memoirs of Henry Sibson, a 19th-century British sculptor who worked at Notre Dame at around the same time Hugo wrote the novel. Sibson describes a humpbacked stonemason working there: "He

3465-446: Was a real-life hunchbacked stone carver who worked at Notre Dame during the same period Victor Hugo was writing the novel and they may have even known each other. The deformed Quasimodo is described as "hideous" and a "creation of the devil". He was born with a severe hunchback, a bushy eyebrow covering his left eye while the right eye "disappeared entirely" behind a giant wart, and broken teeth, one of which protruded over his mouth. He

3528-573: Was away branching out on films such as Riddle Gawne and The Kaiser, the Beast of Berlin (both 1918), Stowell and Phillips would continue on as a duo until Chaney's return. Stowell and Phillips made The Heart of Humanity (also 1918), bringing in Erich von Stroheim for a part as the villain that could easily have been played by Chaney. Paid in Advance (1919) was the group's last film together, for Stowell

3591-463: Was being conducted, all MGM studios and offices observed two minutes of silence. Chaney was interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, next to the crypt of his father. His wife Hazel was interred there upon her death in 1933. In accordance with his will, Chaney's crypt has remained unmarked. In 1957, Chaney was the subject of a biopic titled Man of a Thousand Faces , in which he

3654-438: Was born to a tribe of Romani people (in the novel called égyptienne or 'gypsies'), but due to his monstrous appearance he was switched during infancy with an able-bodied baby girl, Agnes. One character in the novel refers to him as animalistic and un-Christian, suggesting he may be the "offspring of a Jew and a sow ", and thus deserving of death. After being discovered, Quasimodo is exorcised by Agnes's mother (who believed that

3717-404: Was his only " talkie " and the only film in which Chaney utilized his powerful and versatile voice. Chaney signed a sworn statement declaring that five of the key voices in the film (the ventriloquist, the old woman, a parrot, the dummy and the girl) were his own. Makeup in the early days of cinema was almost non-existent with the exception of beards and mustaches to denote villains. Most of what

3780-441: Was portrayed by James Cagney . The film is a largely fictionalized account, as Chaney was notoriously private and hated the Hollywood lifestyle. He never revealed personal details about himself or his family, once stating, "Between pictures, there is no Lon Chaney." Chaney's son Creighton, later known as Lon Chaney Jr. , became a film actor after his father's death. Chaney Jr. is best remembered for roles in horror films, such as

3843-676: Was sent to Africa by Universal to scout locations for a movie. En route from one city to another, Stowell was in the caboose when it was hit by the locomotive from another train; he was killed instantly. The majority of these films are lost apart from a few, including Triumph and Paid in Advance , which survive in private collections or in European or Russian archives. Chaney had a breakthrough performance as "The Frog" in George Loane Tucker 's The Miracle Man (1919). The film displayed not only Chaney's acting ability, but also his talent as

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3906-495: Was the carver under the Government sculptor whose name I forget as I had no intercourse with him, all that I know is that he was humpbacked and he did not like to mix with carvers." Because Victor Hugo had close links with the restoration of the cathedral, it is likely that he was aware of the unnamed "humpbacked carver" nicknamed "Le Bossu" (French for "The Hunchback"), who oversaw "Monsieur Trajin". Adrian Glew also uncovered that both

3969-462: Was then," she said, "I became aware for the first time of the difference between standing in front of a camera, and acting." During the filming of Thunder in the winter of 1929, Chaney developed pneumonia . In late 1929, he was diagnosed with bronchial lung cancer . This was exacerbated when fake snow lodged in his throat during filming and caused a serious infection. Despite aggressive treatment, his condition gradually worsened, and he died of

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