115-397: Qiu Jin ( Chinese : 秋瑾 ; pinyin : Qiū Jǐn ; Wade–Giles : Ch'iu Chin ; 8 November 1875 – 15 July 1907) was a Chinese revolutionary, feminist , and writer. Her courtesy names are Xuanqing ( Chinese : 璿卿 ; pinyin : Xuánqīng ) and Jingxiong ( traditional Chinese : 競雄 ; simplified Chinese : 竞雄 ; pinyin : Jìngxióng ). Her sobriquet name
230-464: A nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong , diphthong , or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant , or consonant + glide ; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone . There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where
345-457: A subject–verb–object word order , and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words , another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction , pronoun dropping , and
460-505: A Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian , a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and
575-595: A Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and Shanghainese ; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of Taiwanese people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien (also called 台語 ; 'Taiwanese' ), Hakka , or an Austronesian language . A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other languages of Taiwan in everyday speech. In part due to traditional cultural ties with Guangdong , Cantonese
690-462: A central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity. The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is 方言 ; fāngyán ; 'regional speech', whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called 地点方言 ; 地點方言 ; dìdiǎn fāngyán ; 'local speech'. Because of
805-597: A compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as Guanhua , based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin. Standard Chinese is an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore , and one of
920-700: A corresponding increase in the number of homophones . As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary lists six words that are commonly pronounced as shí in Standard Chinese: In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century Yuen Ren Chao poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced shi . As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only
1035-627: A female pioneer for the woman's liberation movement and the republican revolution in China. In the early 1900s, Japan had started to experience western influences earlier than China. As to not fall behind, the Qing government sent many elites to learn from the Japanese. Qiu Jin was one of these elites that got the chance to study overseas. After studying in a women's school in Japan, Qiu returned to China to participate in
1150-532: A full-time educator, becoming a teacher and assistant principal at the Girl Peers' School, where she taught ethics and home economics . She also wrote textbooks, starting with a Japanese language textbook published in 1885. In 1893 and 1894 she went abroad to study noblewomen's education. Her interest in women's education took her to Europe (where she enjoyed an audience with Queen Victoria ) and America for two years, returning to Japan in 1895 with fluent English and
1265-553: A helmet Chinese language Chinese ( simplified Chinese : 汉语 ; traditional Chinese : 漢語 ; pinyin : Hànyǔ ; lit. ' Han language' or 中文 ; Zhōngwén ; 'Chinese writing') is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China , as well as by various communities of the Chinese diaspora . Approximately 1.35 billion people, or 17% of
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#17328455511821380-417: A journal, Vernacular Journal ( Baihua Bao ). A number of issues were published using vernacular Chinese as a medium of revolutionary propaganda . In one issue, Qiu wrote A Respectful Proclamation to China's 200 Million Women Comrades , a manifesto within which she lamented the problems caused by bound feet and oppressive marriages. Having suffered from both ordeals herself, Qiu explained her experience in
1495-567: A meeting of Zhejiang students was held to debate the issue. At the meeting, Qiu allied unquestioningly with the former group and thrust a dagger into the podium, declaring, "If I return to the motherland, surrender to the Manchu barbarians, and deceive the Han people, stab me with this dagger!" She subsequently returned to China in 1906 along with about 2,000 students. While still in Tokyo , Qiu single-handedly edited
1610-564: A millennium. The Four Commanderies of Han were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries. Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese. Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as
1725-445: A model of rational clothing for all women. This bolstered a sense of seriousness for Japanese women in education at a time when female participation in academics was highly contested. Although the pants were eventually phased out to make way for changing trends and new uniform designs, the female students still wear hakama as a tradition to graduation ceremonies. Shimoda Utako was involved in leadership roles in numerous schools: She
1840-449: A poem, Reflections (written during travels in Japan) summarizing her life until that point: 日月無光天地昏， 沉沉女界有誰援。 釵環典質浮滄海， 骨肉分離出玉門。 放足湔除千載毒， 熱心喚起百花魂。 可憐一幅鮫綃帕， 半是血痕半淚痕。 The sun and moon without light. Sky and earth in darkness. Who can uplift the sinking world of women? I pawned my jewels to sail across the open seas, parting from my children as I left
1955-412: A problem to solve: female students needed a uniform that touched on Japanese traditionality, something that fed into a Japanese identity but also embodied practicality. Utako pulled from the hakama, which is traditionally worn by men, and fashioned a new version with inspiration from the uniforms of ladies-in-waiting. The new hakama was quickly adopted into elite urban schools. The wide-legged pants became
2070-488: A raft of new ideas to overhaul Japanese education for women. From 1896, she tutored two daughters of imperial concubine Sachiko Sono : Tsunemiya ( Princess Masako Takeda ) and Kanemiya ( Fusako Kitashirakawa ). In 1899 she established Jissen Jogakkō , later Jissen Women's University , for Japanese middle-class women and female Chinese exchange students, and the Joshi Kōgei Gakkō (Women's vocational craft school) for
2185-490: A reason for women to remain single. Shimoda Utako thought that women should study world affairs, geography, and history, but should not be involved in politics; she opposed women's suffrage . She encouraged bilingualism and had her students learn English and Japanese. She considered that the historically high status of women in Japan had been brought low by the rise of militarism after the Heian period, and religious teachings on
2300-447: A sail between sky and sea, dreaming of Japan's three islands, delicate jade under moonlight. Grieving the fall of bronze camels, guardians of China's palace gates, a warhorse is disgraced, not one battle yet won. As my heart shatters with rage over my homeland's troubles, how can I linger, a guest abroad, savoring spring winds? Editors Sun Chang and Saussy explain the metaphors as follows: On leaving Beijing for Japan, she wrote
2415-538: A secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty . As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate
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#17328455511822530-503: A similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin
2645-610: A unified standard. The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones dated to c. 1250 BCE , during the Late Shang . The next attested stage came from inscriptions on bronze artifacts dating to the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), the Classic of Poetry and portions of the Book of Documents and I Ching . Scholars have attempted to reconstruct
2760-563: A variety of Yue from a small coastal area around Taishan, Guangdong . In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example, Wuzhou and Taishan are located approximately 260 km (160 mi) and 190 km (120 mi) away from Guangzhou respectively, but the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than
2875-471: A variety of revolutionary activities; and through her involvement with these activities, it became clear how Qiu wanted others to perceive her. Qiu called herself 'Female Knight-Errant of Jian Lake' — the role of the knight-errant , established in the Han dynasty, was a prototypically male figure known for swordsmanship, bravery, faithfulness, and self-sacrifice — and 'Vying for Heroism'. Qiu Jin had her feet bound and began writing poetry at an early age. With
2990-532: A wide range of metaphors and allusions that mix classical mythology with revolutionary rhetoric. For example, in a poem, A Reply Verse in Matching Rhyme (for Ishii-kun, a Japanese friend) , she wrote the following: 漫云女子不英雄， 萬里乘風獨向東。 詩思一帆海空闊， 夢魂三島月玲瓏。 銅駝已陷悲回首， 汗馬終慚未有功。 如許傷心家國恨， 那堪客裡度春風。 Don't speak of how women can't become heroes: alone, I rode the winds eastward, for ten thousand leagues. My poetic ponderings expanded,
3105-538: Is Jianhu Nüxia ( traditional Chinese : 鑑湖女俠 ; simplified Chinese : 鉴湖女侠 ; pinyin : Jiànhú Nǚxiá ; lit. 'Woman Knight of Mirror Lake'). Qiu was executed after a failed uprising against the Qing dynasty and is considered a national heroine in China and a martyr of republicanism and feminism . Born in Fujian , China, Qiu Jin spent her childhood in her ancestral home , Shaoxing , Zhejiang . Qiu
3220-596: Is Taishanese. Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the Pearl River , whereas Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys. In parts of Fujian , the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible. Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials: Proportions of first-language speakers The classification of Li Rong , which
3335-754: Is accompanied by inferior moral qualities and inferior intellect, I should not have to argue once again that we need to have a great reform in this aspect for the sake of our Japanese citizens' future." She also considered physical health to be necessary to a colonial empire. While she considered both men and women in Japan to be less healthy than in the West, she judged that women were much worse off, being confined by custom to their homes and restrictive garments. She successfully advocated reform dress . She also opposed Chinese footbinding , requiring that Chinese students attending her school unbind their feet. Despite her influence in many intellectual spheres, Shimoda Utako’s role in
3450-485: Is called either 华语 ; 華語 ; Huáyǔ or 汉语 ; 漢語 ; Hànyǔ ). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. Diglossia is common among Chinese speakers. For example,
3565-415: Is even responsible for the navy-style girls' school uniform), not just in the realm of improving the mind, but in physical education as well. She was an early student of Jigoro Kano , the founder of modern Judo . She founded three women's schools and wrote over 80 books. She died from pneumonia in 1936, aged 82. The Shimoda Utako Research Institute for Women is named after her. Politically, Shimoda Utako
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3680-595: Is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a morpheme , the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free , such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of
3795-445: Is only about an eighth as many as English. All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate
3910-668: Is specifically meant. However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, 石 ; shí alone, and not 石头 ; 石頭 ; shítou , appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as 石膏 ; shígāo ; 'plaster', 石灰 ; shíhuī ; 'lime', 石窟 ; shíkū ; 'grotto', 石英 ; 'quartz', and 石油 ; shíyóu ; 'petroleum'. Although many single-syllable morphemes ( 字 ; zì ) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as 词 ; 詞 ; cí , which more closely resembles
4025-484: Is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries. The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary,
4140-496: Is used as an everyday language in Hong Kong and Macau . The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form. Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as "dialects" because
4255-497: Is used in education, media, formal speech, and everyday life—though Mandarin is increasingly taught in schools due to the mainland's growing influence. Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for
4370-540: Is used in the Language Atlas of China (1987), distinguishes three further groups: Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect on Hainan , Waxianghua spoken in western Hunan , and Shaozhou Tuhua spoken in northern Guangdong . Standard Chinese is the standard language of China (where it is called 普通话 ; pǔtōnghuà ) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it
4485-428: Is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics. The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of diglossia : as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while
4600-684: The Qieyun rime dictionary (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the Yunjing constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the Qieyun system. These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent. Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese , borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence. The resulting system
4715-486: The Gakushūin Women's Academy , giving leadership to the headmaster of the male division, Marusuke Nogi . In 1990, Utako Shimoda was the subject of the biographical novel centering on this scandal, Mikado no onna ( ja:ミカドの淑女 , The Emperor's Woman ) , by Naoki Prize -winning popular author Mariko Hayashi ( ja ). Utako Shimoda's vision and work did much to modernise and improve women's education in Japan (she
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4830-525: The Korean , Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean. Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in
4945-680: The May Fourth Movement beginning in 1919. After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen Jin and Mongol Yuan dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin ) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital. The 1324 Zhongyuan Yinyun was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new sanqu verse form in this language. Together with
5060-579: The National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it 普通话 ; 普通話 ; pǔtōnghuà ; 'common speech'. The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan. In Hong Kong and Macau , Cantonese is the dominant spoken language due to cultural influence from Guangdong immigrants and colonial-era policies, and
5175-426: The hakama is often overlooked. As a product of rapid Westernization in the 1880s, female students would wear Western clothing as school dress. But, Utako Shimoda reckoned this to be impractical and figured pieces like the corset were harmful and restrictive. Similarly, if schools were to adopt the kimono, this would also pose too restrictive, preventing students from partaking in physical activities. Shimoda Utako had
5290-473: The oracle bone inscriptions created during the Shang dynasty c. 1250 BCE . The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern period , Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The Qieyun , a rime dictionary , recorded
5405-591: The phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids. Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at
5520-708: The 12-volume Hanyu Da Cidian , records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai , a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms. The 2016 edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian , an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. Shimoda Utako Utako Shimoda ( 下田 歌子 , Shimoda Utako , September 30, 1854 – October 8, 1936)
5635-400: The Japanese she advocated adherence to a religion, any religion that did not conflict with national polity ( kokutai ) or loyalty to the emperor of Japan , and using Sundays to cultivate virtue (for instance, by visiting graves or a shrine, or attending moral lectures). Shimoda Utako placed a high value on physical education, writing: "Since the laws of biology dictate that inferior health
5750-667: The Japanese were able to do. Qiu Jin was one of the girls who got the chance to study overseas as these opportunities were only given to the children of higher social class. In 1903, she decided to travel overseas and study in Tokyo , Japan , leaving her two children behind. She initially entered a Japanese language school in Surugadai , but later transferred to the Girls' Practical School in Kōjimachi , run by Shimoda Utako (later to become Jissen Women's University ). The school prepared Qiu Jin with
5865-555: The Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet . English words of Chinese origin include tea from Hokkien 茶 ( tê ), dim sum from Cantonese 點心 ( dim2 sam1 ), and kumquat from Cantonese 金橘 ( gam1 gwat1 ). The sinologist Jerry Norman has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a dialect continuum , in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though
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#17328455511825980-518: The Qing dynasty. Between 1905 and 1907, Qiu Jin was also writing a novel called Stones of the Jingwei Bird in traditional ballad form, a type of literature often composed by women for women audiences. The novel describes the relationship between five wealthy women who decide to flee their families and the arranged marriages awaiting them in order to study and join revolutionary activities in Tokyo. Titles for
6095-621: The Sino-Japanese war from 1894 to 1895. Losing to Japan in this war woke the Qing government up to the fact that China was no longer the most powerful nation even in Asia. Japan had started learning western technology and accepting western standards earlier than China. This motivated the Qing government to progress and modernize. The Dowager Empress Cixi looked to Japan as a model to emulate, and her court organized tours to Japan. Many Chinese elites were sent to Japan to learn how they could build China like
6210-551: The University of California, Irvine , published a monograph on Qiu in 2016, Burying Autumn , that explores Qiu Jin's friendship with her sworn sisters Wu Zhiying and Xu Zihua and situates her work in the larger sociopolitical and literary context of the time. Her life has been portrayed in plays, popular movies (including the 1972 Hong Kong film Chow Ken (《秋瑾》), and the documentary Autumn Gem , written by Rae Chang and directed by Chang and Adam Tow. One film, simply titled Qiu Jin ,
6325-425: The authorities arrested Qiu at the school for girls where she was the principal . She was tortured but refused to admit her involvement in the plot. Instead the authorities used her own writings as incrimination against her and, a few days later, she was publicly beheaded in her home village, Shanyin, at the age of 31. Her last written words, her death poem, uses the literal meaning of her name, Autumn Gem, to lament of
6440-504: The biographies of Japanese women such as Empress Jingū and Ōbako , Eastern women such as the mother of Mencius , and Western women such as Princess Alice of the United Kingdom , Catherine Gladstone , Hannah Duston , Dolley Madison , Eleanor of Toledo , Mary Ball Washington , and Charlotte Corday . She also helped Asaoka Hajime translate Renaissance educator François Fénelon 's work on women's education. Her Jissen Jogakkō
6555-452: The border at Jade Gate. Unbinding my feet to pour out a millennium's poisons, I arouse the spirit of women, hundreds of flowers, abloom. Oh, this poor handkerchief made of merfolk-woven silk, half stained with blood and half soaked in tears. War flames in the north‒when will it all end? I hear the fighting at sea continues unabated. Like the women of Qishi, I worry about my country in vain; It's hard to trade kerchief and dress for
6670-473: The differences in marriage dynamics to the practice of monogamy in the West, she hoped that its introduction in Japan would improve the status of women. She argued that women and men had separate spheres and abilities. She thought women's ideal sphere was domestic; they should be wives, mothers, and lords of their households. She advocated that they should control their family finances, and engage in charitable social work, but acknowledged that financial necessity or
6785-399: The different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which
6900-484: The difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include topolect , lect , vernacular , regional , and variety . Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the morphology and also to the characters of the writing system, and phonologically they are structured according to fixed rules. The structure of each syllable consists of
7015-471: The end of the Ch'ing dynasty." In 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for her. Because Qiu is mainly remembered in the West as revolutionary and feminist, her poetry and essays are often overlooked (though owing to her early death, they are few). Her writing reflects an exceptional education in classical literature, and she writes traditional poetry ( shi and ci ). Qiu composes verse with
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#17328455511827130-566: The end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese. Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection , and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles . Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui , Tang , and Song dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by
7245-498: The failed revolution that she would never see take place: 秋風秋雨愁煞人 (Autumn wind, autumn rain — they make one die of sorrow) During Qiu's life, she also drew support from two close friends: Xu Zihua and Wu Zhiying — both of whom had sworn sisterhood with her. In the months following Qiu's execution, Wu wrote three essays mourning Qiu — in which she criticized Qing officials for the execution and argued that Qiu Jin had been slandered and her actions “unjustly besmirched”. Soon after,
7360-413: The first one, 十 , normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of respectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable
7475-491: The form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence. In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections —it possesses no tenses , no voices , no grammatical number , and only a few articles . They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood . In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as 了 ; le ; ' PFV ', 还 ; 還 ; hái ; 'still', and 已经 ; 已經 ; yǐjīng ; 'already'. Chinese has
7590-578: The freedom to marry, freedom of education, and abolishment of the practice of foot binding . In 1906 she founded China Women's News ( Zhongguo nü bao ), a radical women's journal with another female poet, Xu Zihua in Shanghai. They published only two issues before it was closed by the authorities. In 1907, she became head of the Datong school in Shaoxing, ostensibly a school for sport teachers, but really intended for
7705-522: The global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language . Chinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of a single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family . Investigation of
7820-413: The good of the country might require that women work outside the home, in which case daycares were valuable. She also supported women taking professional roles, such as physician, journalist, or nurse (she was an admirer of epidemiologist Florence Nightingale ). She considered devoting oneself to religion, public service, or an art in which one was very talented, was an acceptable alternative to marriage and
7935-599: The government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas . Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family , together with Burmese , Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif . Although
8050-517: The historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese , of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min ), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese ), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese ). These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with
8165-533: The inferiority of women. She cited Amaterasu , the female ancestor of the imperial lineage, and other early Japanese stories, as evidence for the high status of Japanese women in the past. She criticized the period of warrior rule (which she saw as lasting seven centuries, from the late Heian Period , in the 12th century, until the Meiji Era , 1868 to 1912). She characterized it as a time when physical strength became of paramount importance, and thus women's status sank to
8280-581: The language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam. Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese. Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as Sino-Xenic pronunciations . Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into
8395-516: The late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called kanji , and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called hanja is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses
8510-409: The later uncompleted chapters suggest that the women will go on to talk about “education, manufacturing, military activities, speechmaking, and direct political action, eventually overthrowing the Qing dynasty and establishing a republic” — all of which were subject matters that Qiu either participated in or advocated for. Qiu Jin was known as an eloquent orator who spoke out for women's rights, such as
8625-470: The lower classes. In 1901 she founded the Aikoku Fujinkai , or Patriotic Women's Association, and in 1907 she withdrew from working with the upper classes to concentrate on educating middle- and lower-class women. Utako Shimoda gave public speeches, which were often printed in women's magazines. She also wrote many women's biographies, believing them important for women's moral education. These included
8740-463: The manifesto and received an overwhelmingly sympathetic response from her readers. Also outlined in the manifesto was Qiu's belief that a better future for women lay under a Western-type government instead of the Qing government that was in power at the time. She joined forces with her cousin Xu Xilin and together they worked to unite many secret revolutionary societies to work together for the overthrow of
8855-528: The military ranks,” in encouraging educated women not to waste time on poetry but to instead engage in direct action. Within the Revolutionary Alliance, Qiu was responsible for the Zhejiang Province. Because the Chinese overseas students were divided between those who wanted an immediate return to China to join the ongoing revolution and those who wanted to stay in Japan to prepare for the future,
8970-398: The military training of revolutionaries. While teaching in Datong school, she kept secret connection with local underground organization—The Restoration Society. This organization aimed to overthrow the Manchu government and restore Chinese rule. In 1907, Xu Xilin, Qiu's friend and the Datong school's co-founder was executed for attempting to assassinate his Manchu superior. In the same year,
9085-455: The more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic words , especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonetic erosion : sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including
9200-425: The mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language. There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with
9315-583: The nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can stand alone as their own syllable. In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals /m/ , /n/ , /ŋ/ , the retroflex approximant /ɻ/ , and voiceless stops /p/ , /t/ , /k/ , or /ʔ/ . Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only /n/ , /ŋ/ , and /ɻ/ . The number of sounds in
9430-551: The other hand, she criticized Westerners as greedy. She lectured on the advantage of the western custom of pocket-money, and taught that household economics were the foundation of a nation's wealth. She wrote two biographies of Queen Victoria; she considered the success of the British Empire to have been caused by Victoria's virtues. Shimoda Utako praised her as a wise wife, mother, and monarch, describing her philanthropic work and her insistence that her children learn manual skill,
9545-538: The other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin , Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin , Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan . All varieties of Chinese are tonal at least to some degree, and are largely analytic . The earliest attested written Chinese consists of
9660-436: The point that they became "men's slaves or material possessions". She saw it as her role to restore the historically high status of Japanese women, and thus raise Japanese civilization. Shimoda Utako pointed out the low regard in which the warrior-led society had held economic skills and virtues, attributing the greater wealth of Western nations to the cultural unwillingness of the Japanese to work hard and manage money well. On
9775-404: The rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain . Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke Taishanese ,
9890-552: The related subject dropping . Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers. However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for
10005-509: The relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic . Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. Without
10120-412: The same womb) as Japanese women, though not of the same race, and inferior in education, opportunities, and "superstitious" culture, not intelligence or abilities. Her views have also been described as supporting eugenics . She considered herself a moderate reformer, a Secchūha ( 折衷派 ) , and felt that aspects of Western culture should be selectively adopted to strengthen Japan. Shimoda Utako opposed
10235-505: The six official languages of the United Nations . Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters , largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of simplified characters has been promoted by
10350-589: The skills she needed for revolutionary activities later on. With the education from Shimoda school, many female activists participated in the Republican Revolution in 1911. During her time in Tokyo, Qiu also helped to establish the Encompassing Love Society, a women's group that promoted women's education and protested the Russian presence in northeast China. She was very fond of martial arts , and she
10465-557: The slightly later Menggu Ziyun , this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects. Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties , known as 官话 ; 官話 ; Guānhuà ; 'language of officials'. For most of this period, this language
10580-474: The subjugation of women, and their absolute obedience to men; she encouraged wives to scold their husbands if they behaved unjustly or unvirtuously, and to develop self-respect and dignity. She also said that daughters had a right to express an opinion on an arranged marriage. She judged that Eastern cultures demeaned women and valued men, while Western ones did the reverse. She was surprised by how kind Western men were to their wives, and as she attributed many of
10695-724: The support from her family, Qiu Jin also learned how to ride a horse and use a sword—activities that usually only men were permitted to learn at the time. In 1896 Qiu Jin got married. At the time she was only 21, which was considered late for a woman of that time. Qiu Jin's father arranged her marriage to Wang Tingchun, the youngest son of a wealthy merchant in Hunan province . Qiu Jin did not get along well with her husband, as her husband only cared about enjoying himself. While in an unhappy marriage, Qiu came into contact with new ideas. The failure of her marriage affected her decisions later on, including choosing to study in Japan. The Qing government lost
10810-408: The swordsman Takeo Shimoda, at her family's request. He suffered from alcoholism and a serious stomach ailment, and she spent much of her time caring for him. Motivated by the urgings of her connections at court, who requested a school for their daughters, and by financial need, in 1881 Utako was opened her house as a private school for girls over 10 years old. She taught poetry and Chinese classics to
10925-609: The tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English. Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic compounds . In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in 窟窿 ; kūlong from 孔 ; kǒng ; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to
11040-547: The traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese cí can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more. Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include 汉堡包 ; 漢堡包 ; hànbǎobāo ; 'hamburger', 守门员 ; 守門員 ; shǒuményuán ; 'goalkeeper', and 电子邮件 ; 電子郵件 ; diànzǐyóujiàn ; 'e-mail'. All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages : they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure), rather than inflectional morphology (changes in
11155-514: The two sworn sisters set out to bury Qiu properly near West Lake , fulfilling Qiu's wish to be buried near heroes of earlier periods. Qing officials soon ordered for her tomb to be razed, but Qiu Jin's brother managed to retrieve her body in time. Ultimately, Wu Zhiying took possession of the memorial stele, installing it in her own house and selling stele rubbings as a way to commemorate her fallen friend. To this day, people continue to have varying opinions towards Qiu's death. Many said that her death
11270-512: The use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable ma . The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be " checked tones " and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such: Chinese
11385-520: The value of labour, and sympathy and understanding for the poor. She criticized traditional Japanese Buddhist teachings that women were too sinful to be saved. She criticized the Confucian teachings that women should obey their fathers, husbands, and sons, while men could or should divorce their wives under some conditions. Shimoda Utako viewed Christianity as moderating the cruel and arrogant natures of Westerners, and churchgoing as inculcating morality; for
11500-505: The wives of a number of ex-samurai officials. She would interrupt a lecture to tend to her husband when he called her. In 1883 the empress decided to found a school for educating girls of the nobility, the Kazoku Jogakkō (later merged with the Gakushūin ). Utako initially did not participate on grounds of her huband's health. Takeo died in 1884 and Utako threw herself into her work as
11615-452: The words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines. Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters , but later replaced with the hangul alphabet for Korean and supplemented with kana syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex chữ Nôm script. However, these were limited to popular literature until
11730-508: The written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as Classical or Literary Chinese . Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the Spring and Autumn period . Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of written vernacular Chinese with
11845-582: Was a Japanese educator and poet of the Meiji and Taishō period . Born in present-day Ena, Gifu , she was the founder many educational organizations, including what is today Jissen Women's University . She had international influence, and was one of the most influential women in Asia. Utako Shimoda was born into a samurai family as Seki Hirao, in Iwakara , in Gifu Prefecture . For the first 6–7 years of her life she
11960-453: Was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court. In the 1930s, a standard national language ( 国语 ; 國語 ; Guóyǔ ), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation,
12075-549: Was about 16. She worked as lady-in-waiting to Empress Shōken from 1871-1879. Seki was well-educated and recognised as an excellent poet, so much so that the empress changed her name to Utako (poem child). As a result, she rose through the ranks. At court, she attended lessons and lectures, including learning French. In 1875, she began working on the empress's educational works. She formed connections to political leaders including Itō Hirobumi , Yamagata Aritomo , and Inoue Kaoru . In November 1879, she resigned from court to marry
12190-683: Was an only child, and studied the Confucian classics; she is said to have read all the Chinese and Japanese books her parents had. Her father and grandfather were Confucian scholars. In the run up to the Meiji Restoration , the Hirao family were firmly on the side of the Emperor, and when the Shogunate fell, Utako's father was given a prominent position in Tokyo , where the family moved in 1870, when Utako Shimoda
12305-593: Was born into a wealthy family. Her grandfather worked in the Xiamen city government and was responsible for the city's defense. Zhejiang province was famous for female education, and Qiu Jin had support from her family when she was young to pursue her educational interests. Her father, Qiu Shounan, was a government official and her mother came from a distinguished literati-official family. Qiu Jin's wealthy and educated background, along with her early exposure to political ideologies were key factors in her transformation to becoming
12420-433: Was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half
12535-460: Was known by her acquaintances for wearing Western male dress and for her nationalist, anti-Manchu ideology. She joined the anti-Qing society Guangfuhui , led by Cai Yuanpei , which in 1905 joined with a variety of overseas Chinese revolutionary groups to form the Tongmenghui , led by Sun Yat-sen . Already known as a calligrapher and a poet, Qiu described herself as “tossing aside the brush to join
12650-776: Was one of the first Japanese women's schools to take Chinese students, at first all the daughters of expatriates, but from 1903 onwards students also came from China to be educated there. She helped found the Zhouxin She (Society for Renewal) in Shanghai, and her works were published in Mandarin translation in its journal Dalu ( Chinese : 大陸 ). In 1907, the Heimin Shinbun (Common People's Newspaper) published (over 42 days) an article series called Yōfu Shimoda Utako ( 妖婦下田歌子 , Enchantress Shimoda Utako ) . It attacked corrupt right-wing politicians by alleging that Shimoda Utako
12765-450: Was released in 1983 and directed by Xie Jin . Another film, released in 2011, Jing Xiong Nüxia Qiu Jin (競雄女俠秋瑾), or The Woman Knight of Mirror Lake , was directed by Herman Yau . She is briefly shown in the beginning of 1911 , being led to the execution ground to be beheaded. The movie was directed by Jackie Chan and Zhang Li. Immediately after her death Chinese playwrights used the incident, "resulting in at least eight plays before
12880-513: Was royalist and nationalist; she supported an expansionist colonial foreign policy, feeling that it was Japan's divine destiny to lead East Asia to a higher level of civilization and wealth, already attained in the West. She warned about and opposed Western imperialism. While she favoured a nationalistic education that instilled patriotism, she judged that the patriotism taught in the west was excessive, and too vengeful, belligerent, and prideful. She considered Chinese and Korean women to be dōhō 同胞 (of
12995-485: Was sexually involved with Itō Hirobumi (a former prime minister), Yamagata Aritomo (another former prime minister, and a military leader ), and Inoue Kaoru (a cabinet minister ). The issues containing the article series were banned by the government. There were also rumours connecting her to the emperor and Kichisaburō Iino (a politically-powerful Shinto mystic). Utako Shimoda's powerful supporters did not publicly defend her, and in 1906 she had to step down as head of
13110-414: Was unnecessary because she had enough time to escape before being caught by imperial soldiers. In fact, Qiu's friends even warned her of incoming soldiers immediately after Xu Xilin's death. Lu Xun , one of China's greatest 20th-century writers was one of her biggest critics; he “[...] believed Qiu’s reckless behavior in Shaoxing was linked to the enormous adulation she received during her time in Japan.” She
13225-626: Was “clapped to death,” he told a friend — although there is no clear explanation as to why Qiu decided to remain at the school despite knowing that the authorities were on their way. Qiu was posthumously immortalized in the Republic of China 's popular consciousness and literature. She is buried beside West Lake in Hangzhou . The People's Republic of China established a museum for her in Shaoxing , Qiu Jin's Former Residence (紹興秋瑾故居). Chinese scholar Hu Ying , professor of East Asian Languages and Literature at
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