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49-424: A puddle is generally shallow enough to walk through, and too small to traverse with a boat or raft . Small wildlife may be attracted to puddles. Puddles in natural landscapes and habitats , when not resulting from precipitation , can indicate the presence of a seep or spring . Small seasonal riparian plants, grasses , and wildflowers can germinate with the ephemeral "head start" of moisture provided by

98-485: A behaviour known as puddling they seek out the damp mud that can be found around the edge of the puddles. For some smaller forms of life, such as tadpoles or mosquito larvae, a puddle can form an entire habitat. Puddles that do not evaporate quickly can become standing water , which can become polluted by decaying organisms and are often home to breeding mosquitos , which can act as vectors for diseases such as malaria and, of more recent concern in certain areas of

147-978: A boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard a ship. Boats vary in proportion and construction methods with their intended purpose, available materials, or local traditions. Canoes have been used since prehistoric times and remain in use throughout the world for transportation, fishing, and sport. Fishing boats vary widely in style partly to match local conditions. Pleasure craft used in recreational boating include ski boats, pontoon boats , and sailboats . House boats may be used for vacationing or long-term residence. Lighters are used to move cargo to and from large ships unable to get close to shore. Lifeboats have rescue and safety functions. Boats can be propelled by manpower (e.g. rowboats and paddle boats ), wind (e.g. sailboats ), and inboard / outboard motors (including gasoline , diesel , and electric ). The earliest watercraft are considered to have been rafts . These would have been used for voyages such as

196-484: A boat's hull and covered over with cement. Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structures it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode. As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the Bessemer process ( patented in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common. By

245-541: A commentary on potholes by placing mosaics (depicting ice cream in various manifestations) or sculpture (in the form of a crocodile) in potholes. Elsewhere, activists in Russia used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England , a graffiti artist painted images of penises around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours. The Beatles song " A Day in

294-414: A dirt road, or in any other space with a shallow depression and dirt. In such cases, these are sometimes referred to as mud puddles , because mud tends to form in the bottoms, resulting in dirtied wheels or boots when disturbed. In order to deal with puddles, roads and pavements are often built with a camber (technically called 'crowning'), being slightly convex in nature, to force puddles to drain into

343-646: A few inches. If they become large enough, damage to tires, wheels, and vehicle suspensions is liable to occur. Serious road accidents can occur as a direct result, especially on those roads where vehicle speeds are greater. Potholes may result from four main causes: The following steps can be taken to avoid pothole formation in existing pavements: At-risk pavement are more often local roads with lower structural standards and more complicating factors, like underground utilities, than major arteries. Pavement condition monitoring can lead to timely preventive action. Surveys address pavement distresses, which both diminishes

392-409: A framework with animal skins, could be equally as old as logboats, but such a structure is much less likely to survive in an archaeological context. Plank-built boats are considered, in most cases, to have developed from the logboat. There are examples of logboats that have been expanded: by deforming the hull under the influence of heat, by raising up the sides with added planks, or by splitting down

441-476: A local asphalt plant, either 1) using the available aggregate and binder or 2) according to specifications set by the agency that will use the mix. The third type is a proprietary cold mix, which is manufactured to an advertised standard. The FHWA manual cites the throw-and-roll method as the most basic method, best used as a temporary repair under conditions when it is difficult to control the placement of material, such as winter-time. It consists of: This method

490-433: A modern context, empty oil drums). The key difference between a raft and a boat is that the former is a "flow through" structure, with waves able to pass up through it. Consequently, except for short river crossings, a raft is not a practical means of transport in colder regions of the world as the users would be at risk of hypothermia . Today that climatic limitation restricts rafts to between 40° north and 40° south, with, in

539-425: A more effective repair and drove out moisture which improved adhesion. The FHWA manual cites the semi-permanent repair method as one of the best for repairing potholes, short of full-depth roadway replacement. It consists of: While this repair procedure provides durable results, it requires more labor and is more equipment-intensive than the throw-and-roll or the spray-injection procedure. The FHWA manual cites

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588-543: A puddle. Small wildlife, such as birds and insects, can use puddles as a source of essential moisture or for bathing. Raised constructed puddles, bird baths , are a part of domestic and wildlife gardens as a garden ornament and "micro-habitat" restoration . Swallows use the damp loam which gathers in puddles as a form of cement to help to build their nests. Many butterfly species and some other insects, but particularly male butterflies, need puddles for nutrients they can contain, such as salts and amino acids . In

637-673: A young boy drowning in a puddle that formed in a pothole in a major street in the early years of Seattle , Washington , is told as part of the Seattle Underground Tour . Boat A boat is a watercraft of a large range of types and sizes, but generally smaller than a ship , which is distinguished by its larger size or capacity, its shape, or its ability to carry boats. Small boats are typically used on inland waterways such as rivers and lakes , or in protected coastal areas. However, some boats (such as whaleboats ) were intended for offshore use. In modern naval terms,

686-410: Is a modern construction method, using wood as the structural component. In one cold molding process, very thin strips of wood are layered over a form. Each layer is coated with resin, followed by another directionally alternating layer laid on top. Subsequent layers may be stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous, or weighted or vacuum bagged to provide compression and stabilization until

735-536: Is also known as "GRP" (glass-reinforced plastic) in the UK, and "FRP" (for fiber-reinforced plastic) in the US. Fiberglass boats are strong and do not rust, corrode, or rot. Instead, they are susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan. Fiberglass structures can be made stiffer with sandwich panels, where the fiberglass encloses a lightweight core such as balsa or foam. Cold molding

784-490: Is the main, and in some cases only, structural component of a boat. It provides both capacity and buoyancy . The keel is a boat's "backbone", a lengthwise structural member to which the perpendicular frames are fixed. On some boats, a deck covers the hull, in part or whole. While a ship often has several decks, a boat is unlikely to have more than one. Above the deck are often lifelines connected to stanchions , bulwarks perhaps topped by gunnels , or some combination of

833-557: Is typical, there are two million holes in Britain's roads and 300,000 in London." In the Seinfeld episode The Pothole , George discovers that he has lost his keys, including a commemorative Phil Rizzuto keychain that says "Holy Cow" when activated. He then retraces his steps, and returns to a street where he had jumped over a pothole, which is now filled in with asphalt. The "Holy Cow" phrase

882-522: Is widely used due to its simplicity and speed, especially as an expedient method when the material is placed under unfavorable conditions of water or temperature. It can also be employed at times when the pothole is dry and clean with more lasting results. Eaton, et al., noted that the failure rate of expedient repairs is high and that they can cost as much as five times the cost of properly done repairs. They advocate this type of repair only when weather conditions prevent proper techniques. Researchers from

931-613: The Baltic , the Plimsoll line was introduced to prevent overloading. Since 1998 all new leisure boats and barges built in Europe between 2.5m and 24m must comply with the EU 's Recreational Craft Directive (RCD). The Directive establishes four categories that permit the allowable wind and wave conditions for vessels in each class: Europe is the main producer of recreational boats (the second production in

980-475: The University of Minnesota Duluth have tested mixing asphalt with iron ore containing magnetite which is then heated using ferromagnetic resonance (using microwaves at a specific frequency) to heat the mixed asphalt. The mixture used a compound of between 1% and 2% magnetite. The group discovered that material could be heated for a patch to 100 °C (212 °F) in approximately ten minutes which then applied

1029-458: The birch bark canoe , the animal hide-covered kayak and coracle and the dugout canoe made from a single log. By the mid-19th century, some boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood. In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French, who coined the name "ferciment". This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of

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1078-401: The 1920s, but it was not until the mid-20th century that aluminium gained widespread popularity. Though much more expensive than steel, aluminum alloys exist that do not corrode in salt water, allowing a similar load carrying capacity to steel at much less weight. Around the mid-1960s, boats made of fiberglass (aka "glass fiber") became popular, especially for recreational boats. Fiberglass

1127-400: The 1930s boats built entirely of steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses and fishing fleets. Private recreational boats of steel remain uncommon. In 1895 WH Mullins produced steel boats of galvanized iron and by 1930 became the world's largest producer of pleasure boats. Mullins also offered boats in aluminum from 1895 through 1899 and once again in

1176-571: The Life " references potholes. John Lennon wrote the song's final verse inspired by a Far & Near news brief, in the same 17 January edition of the Daily Mail that had inspired the first two verses. Under the headline "The holes in our roads", the brief stated: "There are 4,000 holes in the road in Blackburn, Lancashire, or one twenty-sixth of a hole per person, according to a council survey. If Blackburn

1225-477: The affected area. Water first weakens the underlying soil; traffic then fatigues and breaks the poorly supported asphalt surface in the affected area. Continued traffic action ejects both asphalt and the underlying soil material to create a hole in the pavement. According to the US Army Corps of Engineers 's Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory , pothole formation requires two factors to be present at

1274-441: The balance above and below the surface equal. Boats have a natural or designed level of buoyancy. Exceeding it will cause the boat first to ride lower in the water, second to take on water more readily than when properly loaded, and ultimately, if overloaded by any combination of structure, cargo, and water, sink. As commercial vessels must be correctly loaded to be safe, and as the sea becomes less buoyant in brackish areas such as

1323-698: The cost of fixing all roads with potholes in the country would cost £12 billion. Some jurisdictions offer websites or mobile apps for pothole-reporting. These allow citizens to report potholes and other road hazards , optionally including a photograph and GPS coordinates. It is estimated there are 55 million potholes in the United States. The self-proclaimed pothole capital, Edmonton , Alberta, Canada reportedly spends $ 4.8 million on 450,000 potholes annually, as of 2015. India has historically lost over 3,000 people per year to accidents caused by potholes. This situation has engendered citizen movement to address

1372-550: The deteriorated patches. A US Air Force manual advocates semiannual inspection of pavement cracks with crack sealing commencing on cracks that exceed 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in) Pothole patching methods may be either temporary or semi-permanent. Temporary patching is reserved for weather conditions that are not favorable to a more permanent solution and usually uses a cold mix asphalt patching compound placed in an expedient manner to temporarily restore pavement smoothness. Semi-permanent patching uses more care in reconstructing

1421-467: The expertise of the equipment operator. The American Automobile Association estimated in the five years prior to 2016 that 16 million drivers in the United States have suffered damage from potholes to their vehicle including tire punctures , bent wheels , and damaged suspensions with a cost of $ 3 billion a year. In India, between 2015 and 2017, an average of 3,000 people per year were killed in accidents involving potholes. Britain has estimated that

1470-411: The gutter, which has storm drain grates to allow the water to drain into the sewers. In addition, some surfaces are made to be porous, allowing the water to drain through the surface to the aquifer below. Due to the action of surface tension , small puddles can also form if a liquid is spilt on a level surface. Puddles like this are common on kitchen floors. Puddles tend to evaporate quickly due to

1519-480: The high surface-area-to-volume ratio. In cold conditions puddles can form patches of ice which are slippery and difficult to see and can be a hazard to road vehicles and pedestrians. Puddles are a source of recreation for children, who often like jumping in puddles as an "up-side" to rain. A children's nursery rhyme records the story of Doctor Foster and his encounter with a puddle in Gloucester. Muddy puddles, and

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1568-449: The middle and adding a central plank to make it wider. (Some of these methods have been in quite recent use – there is no simple developmental sequence). The earliest known plank-built boats are from the Nile, dating to the third millennium BC. Outside Egypt, the next earliest are from England. The Ferriby boats are dated to the early part of the second millennium BC and the end of

1617-731: The past, similar boundaries that have moved as the world's climate has varied. The earliest boats may have been either dugouts or hide boats. The oldest recovered boat in the world, the Pesse canoe , found in the Netherlands , is a dugout made from the hollowed tree trunk of a Pinus sylvestris that was constructed somewhere between 8200 and 7600 BC. This canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands. Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered. Hide boats, made from covering

1666-519: The perimeter of the failed area to blend with the surrounding pavement and usually employs a hot-mix asphalt fill above replacement of appropriate base materials. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) offers an overview of best practices which includes several repair techniques; throw-and-roll, semi-permanent, spray injection, and edge seal. The FHWA suggests the best patching techniques, at times other than winter, are spray injection, throw-and-roll, semi-permanent, or edge seal procedures. In winter,

1715-444: The pleasures of splashing mud in them, are a repeated theme in the children's animation Peppa Pig , to the extent of selling character-branded wellington boots . Medieval legend spoke of one man who was desperate to find building materials for his house, so he stole cobblestones from the road surface. The remaining hole filled with water and a horseman who later walked through the 'puddle' found himself drowning. A similar legend, of

1764-508: The problem. In the United Kingdom , more than half a million pot holes were reported in 2017, an increase of 44% on the 2015 figure. There are processes in place to report potholes at different levels of jurisdiction. The process for claiming compensation varies by jurisdiction. Potholes have been commented on both in various media. Two artists, Jim Bachor of Chicago and Baadal Nanjundaswamy of Bangalore , India, have used artwork as

1813-406: The resin sets. An alternative process uses thin sheets of plywood shaped over a disposable male mold, and coated with epoxy. The most common means of boat propulsion are as follows: A boat displaces its weight in water, regardless whether it is made of wood, steel, fiberglass, or even concrete. If weight is added to the boat, the volume of the hull drawn below the waterline will increase to keep

1862-438: The same time: water and traffic. Water weakens the soil beneath the pavement while traffic applies the loads that stress the pavement past the breaking point. Potholes form progressively from fatigue of the road surface which can lead to a precursor failure pattern known as crocodile (or alligator) cracking . Eventually, chunks of pavement between the fatigue cracks gradually work loose, and may then be plucked or forced out of

1911-492: The settlement of Australia sometime between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. A boat differs from a raft by obtaining its buoyancy by having most of its structure exclude water with a waterproof layer, e.g. the planks of a wooden hull, the hide covering (or tarred canvas) of a currach . In contrast, a raft is buoyant because it joins components that are themselves buoyant, for example, logs, bamboo poles, bundles of reeds, floats (such as inflated hides, sealed pottery containers or, in

1960-649: The soil structure. Adequate crowns promote drainage to the sides. Good crack control prevents water penetration into the pavement soil structure. Preventive maintenance adds maintaining pavement structural integrity with thickness and continuity to the mix of preventing water penetration and promoting water migration away from the roadway. Eaton, et al., advocate a permitting process for utility cuts with specifications that avoid loss of structural continuity of pavements and flaws or failures that allow water penetration. Some municipalities require contractors to install utility repair tags to identify responsible parties of

2009-419: The spray-injection procedure as an efficient alternative to semi-permanent repair. It requires specialized equipment, however. It consists of: This procedure requires no compaction after the cover aggregate has been placed. The FHWA manual cites the edge seal method as an alternative to the above techniques. It consists of: In this procedure, waiting for any water to dry may require a second visit to place

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2058-401: The strength of the asphalt layer and admits water into the pavement, and effective drainage of water from within and around the pavement structure. Drainage structures, including ditching and storm sewers are essential for removing water from pavements. Avoiding other risk factors with good construction includes well-draining base and sub-base soils that avoid frost action and promote drying of

2107-503: The surface by continued wheel loads to create a pothole. In areas subject to freezing and thawing, frost heaving can damage a pavement and create openings for water to enter. In the spring , thaw of pavements accelerates this process when the thawing of upper portions of the soil structure in a pavement cannot drain past still-frozen lower layers, thus saturating the supporting soil and weakening it. Potholes can grow to several feet in width, though they usually only develop to depths of

2156-548: The tack coat. The tack material prevents water from getting through the edge of the patch and helps bond the patch to the surrounding pavement. An FHWA-sponsored study determined that the "throw-and-roll technique proved as effective as the semi-permanent procedure when the two procedures were compared directly, using similar materials". It also found the throw-and-roll procedure to be generally more cost-effective when using quality materials. It further found that spray-injection repairs were as effective as control patches, depending on

2205-715: The third millennium. Plank-built boats require a level of woodworking technology that was first available in the neolithic with more complex versions only becoming achievable in the Bronze Age . Boats can be categorized by their means of propulsion. These divide into: A number of large vessels are usually referred to as boats. Submarines are a prime example. Other types of large vessels which are traditionally called boats include Great Lakes freighters , riverboats , and ferryboats . Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargo, these vessels are designed for operation on inland or protected coastal waters. The hull

2254-506: The throw-and-roll technique may be the only available option. The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in South Africa offers similar methods for the repair of potholes. Asphaltic patch materials consist of a binder and aggregate that come in two broad categories, hot mix and cold mix. Hot mixes are used by some agencies, they are produced at local asphalt plants. The FHWA manual cites three types of cold mixes, those produced by

2303-518: The two. A cabin may protrude above the deck forward, aft, along the centerline, or cover much of the length of the boat. Vertical structures dividing the internal spaces are known as bulkheads . The forward end of a boat is called the bow , the aft end the stern . Facing forward the right side is referred to as starboard and the left side as port . Until the mid-19th century, most boats were made of natural materials, primarily wood, although bark and animal skins were also used. Early boats include

2352-489: The world is located in Poland). European brands are known all over the world - in fact, these are the brands that created RCD and set the standard for shipyards around the world. Pothole A pothole is a pot-shaped depression in a road surface , usually asphalt pavement , where traffic has removed broken pieces of the pavement. It is usually the result of water in the underlying soil structure and traffic passing over

2401-501: The world, West Nile virus . Puddles commonly form during rain , and can cause problems for transport. Due to the angle of the road, puddles tend to be forced by gravity to gather on the edges of the road. This can cause splashing as cars drive through the puddles, which causes water to be sprayed onto pedestrians on the pavement. Irresponsible drivers may do this deliberately, which, in some countries, can lead to prosecution for careless driving. Puddles commonly form in potholes in

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