Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior , emotion , and thought , which could possibly be understood as a mental disorder . Although many behaviors could be considered as abnormal , this branch of psychology typically deals with behavior in a clinical context. There is a long history of attempts to understand and control behavior deemed to be aberrant or deviant (statistically, functionally, morally, or in some other sense), and there is often cultural variation in the approach taken. The field of abnormal psychology identifies multiple causes for different conditions, employing diverse theories from the general field of psychology and elsewhere, and much still hinges on what exactly is meant by "abnormal". There has traditionally been a divide between psychological and biological explanations, reflecting a philosophical dualism in regard to the mind–body problem . There have also been different approaches in trying to classify mental disorders . Abnormal includes three different categories; they are subnormal , supernormal and paranormal .
94-398: Psychopathology is the study of mental illness. It includes the signs and symptoms of all mental disorders. The field includes abnormal cognition, maladaptive behavior, and experiences which differ according to social norms. This discipline is an in-depth look into symptoms, behaviors, causes, course, development, categorization, treatments, strategies, and more. Biological psychopathology
188-490: A 2007 survey. An Emory University psychology professor explained, “I don’t think psychoanalysis is going to survive unless there is more of an appreciation for empirical rigor and testing.” According to American psychologist Calvin S. Hall , from his 1954 Primer in Freudian Psychology : Freud greatly admired Brücke and quickly became indoctrinated by this new dynamic physiology. Thanks to Freud's singular genius, he
282-587: A cluster of personality traits that lead to specific outcomes, and violate the rights of other people. These personality traits include callousness, deceitfulness, lack of remorse, apathy, manipulation of others, impulsiveness, and grandiosity. Additional traits may include superficial charm, sexual promiscuity, and pathological lying. Dissociative identity disorder (DID) involves one individual having multiple personalities. Those with DID are described as having multiple selves that each have their own consciousness and awareness. DID has two main etiologies, which are
376-539: A disorder. Both causes play a key role in the development of a psychological disorder. For example, high neuroticism antedates most types of psychopathology. There is a wide range of mental disorders that are considered to be forms of Abnormal Psychology. These include, but are not limited to: Schizophrenia can be described as a disorder that causes extreme loss of touch with reality. The Psychotic nature of schizophrenia manifests itself through delusions , as well as auditory and visual hallucinations . Schizophrenia
470-465: A formal diagnosis. For example, the presence of hallucinations may be considered as a psychopathological sign, even if there are not enough symptoms present to fulfil the criteria for one of the disorders listed in the DSM or ICD . In a more general sense, any behaviour or experience which causes impairment, distress or disability , particularly if it is thought to arise from a functional breakdown in either
564-618: A larger database. It uses six major functional domains to examine neurobehavioral functioning. Different aspects of each domain are represented by constructs which are studied along the full range of functioning. Together all of the domains form a matrix that could represent research ideas. It is a heuristic, and acknowledges that research topics will change and grow as science emerges. Abnormal psychology The science of abnormal psychology studies two types of behaviors: adaptive and maladaptive behaviors . Behaviors that are maladaptive suggest that some problem(s) exist, and can also imply that
658-474: A number of psychological conditions in randomized controlled trials, more effectively than controls and to the same degree as other psychotherapy modalities. In general, psychodynamics is the study of the interrelationship of various parts of the mind , personality , or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional, or motivational forces especially at the unconscious level. The mental forces involved in psychodynamics are often divided into two parts: (a)
752-547: A particular temperament: too much phlegm causes a person to be fatigued, too much black bile causes melancholia , yellow bile causes a quick temper, and too much blood causes optimism, cheerfulness, and confidence. The act of placing individuals with mental illness in a separate facility known as an asylum dates to 1547, when King Henry VIII of England established the St. Mary of Bethlehem asylum in London. This hospital, nicknamed Bedlam,
846-427: A single perspective. But the professionals prefer to combine two or three perspectives together in order to get significant information for better treatments. Psychoanalytic theory is heavily based on the theory of the neurologist Sigmund Freud . These ideas often represented repressed emotions and memories from a patient's childhood within their unconscious. According to psychoanalytic theory, these repressions cause
940-430: A social norm. Explanatory psychopathology looks to find explanations for certain kinds of symptoms according to theoretical models such as psychodynamics , cognitive behavioural therapy or through understanding how they have been constructed by drawing upon Constructivist Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 2016) or Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2013). There are several ways to characterise
1034-545: A traumatic and/or embarrassing experience has occurred while the person was being observed by other people. Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by a constant, chronic state of worry and anxiety that is related to a large variety of situations, and is difficult to control. Additional symptoms may include irritability, fatigue, concentration difficulties, and restlessness. Individuals with specific phobias have an extreme fear and avoidance of various objects or situations. Specifically, fears become phobias when there
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#17328546536501128-554: A young Swiss psychiatrist named Carl Jung had been following Freud's writings and had sent him copies of his articles and his first book, the 1907 Psychology of Dementia Praecox , in which he upheld the Freudian psychodynamic viewpoint, although with some reservations. That year, Freud invited Jung to visit him in Vienna. The two men, it is said, were greatly attracted to each other, and they talked continuously for thirteen hours. This led to
1222-627: Is a guideline for the diagnosis and understanding of mental disorders. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) sponsors the editing, writing, reviewing and publishing of this book. It is a reference book on mental health and brain-related conditions and disorders. It serves as reference for a range of professionals in medicine and mental health in the United States particularly. These professionals include psychologists, counsellors, physicians, social workers, psychiatric nurses and nurse practitioners, marriage and family therapists, and more. The current DSM
1316-427: Is always constant, that energy quanta can be changed but not annihilated, and that consequently when energy is moved from one part of the system, it must reappear in another part." This principle is at the very root of Freud's ideas, whereby libido , which is primarily seen as sexual energy, is transformed into other behaviours. However, it is now clear that the term energy in physics means something quite different from
1410-472: Is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces underlying human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. It is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation. The term psychodynamics is sometimes used to refer specifically to the psychoanalytical approach developed by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and his followers. Freud
1504-588: Is associated with many adverse effects, including poor academic performance, impulsivity, criminality, suicidality, reduced foetal growth, lower executive functioning , and a greater number of psychiatric diagnoses. A partial genetic basis for the p factor has also been supported. Alternatively, the p factor has also been interpreted as an index of general impairment rather than being a specific index that causes psychopathology. The term psychopathology may also be used to denote behaviours or experiences which are indicative of mental illness, even if they do not constitute
1598-499: Is certainly a crucial event in the history of psychology . At the heart of psychological processes, according to Freud, is the ego , which he sees battling with three forces: the id, the super-ego, and the outside world. Hence, the basic psychodynamic model focuses on the dynamic interactions between the id, ego, and superego. Psychodynamics, subsequently, attempts to explain or interpret behavior or mental states in terms of innate emotional forces or processes. In his writings about
1692-518: Is considered to be the father of Western medicine, played a major role in the biological tradition. Hippocrates and his associates wrote the Hippocratic Corpus between 450 and 350 BC, in which they suggested that abnormal behaviors can be treated like any other disease. Hippocrates viewed the brain as the seat of consciousness , emotion , intelligence , and wisdom and believed that disorders involving these functions would logically be located in
1786-443: Is defined as the study of the forces, motives, and energy generated by the deepest of human needs. In general, psychodynamics studies the transformations and exchanges of "psychic energy" within the personality. A focus in psychodynamics is the connection between the energetics of emotional states in the Id, ego and super-ego as they relate to early childhood developments and processes. At
1880-410: Is done to align with cultural norms. Those with social anxiety disorder (SAD) have a very intense fear of social situations. This fear stems from the belief that the person will be evaluated negatively or embarrass themselves. SAD is also considered to be one of the more disabling mental disorders. Symptoms of this disorder include fear in most, if not all, social situations. SAD can develop after
1974-543: Is excessive and unreasonable fear that is disproportionate to the culture that the individual is in. Examples of specific phobias include, but are not limited to, phobias of school, blood , injury , needles , small animals, and heights . Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is described as physical and mental distress related to past traumatic experiences. PTSD can manifest a large variety of symptoms, including, but not limited to, nightmares, flashbacks, avoidance and/or physiological reactions related to stimuli regarding
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#17328546536502068-448: Is included. There are various conditions that have been included in this manual and continue to be added to the DSM-5. The causes of many of these diseases are derived from variables such as genetic, biological, socio-cultural, systemic, and biopsychosocial factors. There are also various counseling theories that support and help explain the findings related to each illness. In North America this
2162-427: Is informed by psychoanalytic theory, but diverges from the traditional practice model. In the treatment of psychological distress, psychodynamic psychotherapy tends to be a less intensive (once- or twice-weekly) modality than the classical Freudian psychoanalysis treatment (of 3–5 sessions per week) and typically relies less on the traditional practices of psychoanalytic therapy, such as the patient facing away from
2256-427: Is known as multiple causality. The diathesis–stress model emphasizes the importance of applying multiple causality to psychopathology, by stressing that disorders are caused by both precipitating causes, and predisposing causes. A precipitating cause is an immediate trigger that instigates a person's action or behavior. A predisposing cause is an underlying factor that interacts with the immediate factors to result in
2350-585: Is known to have a genetic etiology, as well as other biological components, such as brain disruptions in the prenatal development period. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by high amounts of inattention and hyperactive impulsiveness. Inattentive symptoms include not listening, careless errors, disorganization, losing personal belongings, becoming easily distracted, and forgetfulness. Symptoms of hyperactive impulsiveness include fidgeting, talking excessively, and interrupting others. Antisocial personality disorder can be described as
2444-656: Is modelled in the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology . Although researchers initially conceived a three-factor explanation for psychopathology generally, subsequent study provided more evidence for a single factor that is sequentially comorbid , recurrent/chronic , and exists on a continuum of severity and chronicity. Higher scores on the p factor dimension have been found to be correlated with higher levels of functional impairment, greater incidence of problems in developmental history, and more diminished early-life brain function. In addition, those with higher levels of
2538-480: Is more than just one symptom. In order to be classified for diagnosis, the symptoms cannot represent an expected response to a common stress or loss that is related to an event. Syndromes are a set of simultaneous symptoms that represent a disorder. Common mental health disorders include depression, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, phobias, social anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Depression
2632-481: Is normally for good behavior, it can also occur for maladaptive behavior. In this therapeutic view, the patients maladaptive behavior has been reinforced, which will cause the maladaptive behavior to be repeated. The goal of the therapy is to reinforce less maladaptive behaviors, so that with time, these adaptive behaviors will become the primary ones in the patient. Psychodynamics Psychodynamics , also known as psychodynamic psychology , in its broadest sense,
2726-539: Is not necessarily meant to serve as a diagnostic guide or replace the DSM, however, it is meant to examine various degrees of dysfunction. It was developed by the US National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). It aims to address heterogeneity by providing a more symptom based framework for understanding mental disorders. It relied on dimensions that span the range from normal to abnormal and allows investigators to work with
2820-591: Is one of the most common and most debilitating mental disorders worldwide. It affects how individuals think, feel, and act. Symptoms vary depending on each individual person and include feeling sad, irritable, hopeless, or losing interest in activities once enjoyed. Generalized anxiety disorder is feeling worried or nervous more frequently than what correlates to real-life stressors. It is more common in women than men and includes symptoms such as having trouble controlling their worries or feelings of nervousness, or feeling restless and have trouble relaxing. A description of
2914-426: Is still used by some clinical psychologists to varying degrees. Behavior therapy relies on the principles of behaviorism , such as involving classical and operant conditioning . Behaviorism arose in the early 20th century, from the work of psychologists such as James Watson and B. F. Skinner . Behaviorism states that all behaviors humans do is because of a stimulus and reinforcement . While this reinforcement
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3008-613: Is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association . The current version of the book is known as the DSM-5. It lists a set of disorders and provides detailed descriptions on what constitutes a mental disorder. The DSM-5 identifies three key elements that must be present to constitute a mental disorder. These elements include: The DSM-5 uses three main sections to organize its contents. These sections include I, II, and III. Section I includes
3102-490: Is the applied field of psychology that seeks to assess, understand, and treat psychological conditions in clinical practice. The theoretical field known as abnormal psychology may form a backdrop to such work, but clinical psychologists in the current field are unlikely to use the term abnormal in reference to their practice. Psychopathology is a similar term to abnormal psychology, but may have more of an implication of an underlying pathology (disease process), which assumes
3196-516: Is the fifth, most recent edition of this book. It was released in May 2013. Each edition makes significant changes to the classification of disorders. Main article: Research Domain Criteria The RDoC framework is a set of research principles for investigating mental disorders. It is meant to create a new approach to mental illness that leads to better diagnosis, prevention, intervention, and cures. It
3290-412: Is the study of the biological etiology of abnormal cognitions, behaviour and experiences. Child psychopathology is a specialization applied to children and adolescents. Early explanations for mental illnesses were influenced by religious belief and superstition . Psychological conditions that are now classified as mental disorders were initially attributed to possessions by evil spirits, demons, and
3384-586: The ICD-10 Online . Below are the main categories of disorders: The ICD-11 is the most recent version of the International Classification of Diseases. The Mental, behavioral, or Neurodevelopmental disorders section highlights forms of abnormal psychology. Mental, behavioral, or neurodevelopmental disorders Psychologists may use different perspectives to try to get better understanding on abnormal psychology. Some of them may just concentrate on
3478-467: The supernatural , biological , and psychological traditions. Abnormal psychology revolves around two major paradigms for explaining mental disorders, the psychological paradigm and the biological paradigm. The psychological paradigm focuses more on the humanistic, cognitive, and behavioral causes and effects of psychopathology. The biological paradigm includes theories that focus more on physical factors, such as genetics and neurochemistry . In
3572-462: The " ego states ", to develop a psychology of human interactions called transactional analysis which, according to physician James R. Allen, is a "cognitive-behavioral approach to treatment and that it is a very effective way of dealing with internal models of self and others as well as other psychodynamic issues.". Around the 1970s, a growing number of researchers began departing from the psychodynamics model and Freudian subconscious. Many felt that
3666-476: The " engines of human behavior", Freud used the German word Trieb , a word that can be translated into English as either instinct or drive . In the 1930s, Freud's daughter Anna Freud began to apply Freud's psychodynamic theories of the "ego" to the study of parent-child attachment and especially deprivation and in doing so developed ego psychology . At the turn of the 20th century, during these decisive years,
3760-457: The 1950s, when he heard Ralph Greenson , a popular local psychoanalyst who spoke to the public on topics such as "People who Hate", speak on the radio at UCLA . In his radio discussion, according to Horowitz, he "vividly described neurotic behavior and unconscious mental processes and linked psychodynamics theory directly to everyday life." In the 1950s, American psychiatrist Eric Berne built on Freud's psychodynamic model, particularly that of
3854-511: The 19th and 20th century, as a result of the work of many humanitarians such as Dorothea Dix , and the mental hygiene movement which promoted the physical well-being of the mental patients. "Dix, more than any other figure in the nineteenth century, made people in America and virtually all of Europe aware that the insane were being subjected to incredible abuses." Through this movement, millions of dollars were raised to build new institutions to house
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3948-541: The Community Health Services Act of 1963, the Hill-Burton Acts helped with the creation of outpatient psychiatric clinics, inpatient general hospitals, and rehabilitation and community consultation centers. In the late twentieth century, however, a large number of mental hospitals were closed in many countries. In England, for example, only 14 of the 130 psychiatric institutions that had been created in
4042-532: The ICD-11. An explanation regarding the change from the previous multi-axial classification system to the current three section system is also included here. Section II of the DSM-5 Contains a wide range of diagnostic criteria and codes used for establishing, and diagnosing the vast amount of abnormal psychological constructs. This sections replaced the bulk of the axis system in the previous DSM versions and includes
4136-600: The International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision (ICD-10). The ICD-10 has been used by World Health Organization (WHO) Member States since 1994. Chapter five covers some 300 mental and behavioral disorders. The ICD-10's chapter five has been influenced by APA's DSM-IV and there is a great deal of concordance between the two. Beginning in January 2022, the ICD-11 will replace the ICD-10 in WHO member states. WHO maintains free access to
4230-473: The Superego, or an incoherently developed Superego within an individual, will result in thoughts and actions that are irrational and abnormal, contrary to the norms and beliefs of society. Irrational beliefs are driven by unconscious fears and can result in abnormal behavior. Rational emotive behavior therapy helps to drive irrational and maladaptive beliefs out of one's mind. The term sociocultural refers to
4324-405: The abnormal behavior continued into the 15th century. Swiss alchemist , astrologer, and physician Paracelsus (1493–1541), on the other hand, rejected the idea that abnormal behaviors were caused by witches , demons, and spirits and suggested that people's mind and behaviors were influenced by the movements of the moon and stars. This tradition is still alive today. Some people, especially in
4418-431: The biological tradition, psychological disorders are attributed to biological causes. In the psychological tradition, disorders are attributed to faulty psychological development , and to social context . The medical or biological perspective holds the belief that most or all abnormal behavior can be attributed to a medical factor; assuming all psychological disorders are diseases. The Greek physician Hippocrates , who
4512-438: The body. He identified these fluids to be four in particular: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. This later became the basis of the chemical imbalance theory used widely within the present. Furthermore, not far from Hippocrates, the philosopher Plato would come to argue the mind, body, and spirit worked as a unit. Any imbalance brought to these compositions of the individual could bring distress or lack of harmony within
4606-491: The brain. These ideas of Hippocrates and his associates were later adopted by Galen , the Roman physician. Galen extended these ideas and developed a strong and influential school of thought within the biological tradition that extended well into the 18th century. Kendra Cherry, MSEd, states: "The medical approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the biological causes of mental illness. This perspective emphasizes understanding
4700-429: The cognitive or neurocognitive systems in the brain, may be classified as psychopathology. It remains unclear how strong the distinction between maladaptive traits and mental disorders actually is, e.g. neuroticism is often described as the personal level of minor psychiatric symptoms. Main article: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
4794-609: The developing countries, as well as some followers of religious sects in the developed countries, continue to believe that supernatural powers influence human behaviors. In Western academia , the supernatural tradition has been largely replaced by the biological and psychological traditions. Throughout time, societies have proposed several explanations of abnormal behavior within human beings. Beginning in some hunter-gatherer societies, animists have believed that people demonstrating abnormal behavior are possessed by malevolent spirits . This idea has been associated with trepanation ,
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#17328546536504888-463: The devil. This idea was widely accepted up until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Greek physician Hippocrates was one of the first to reject the idea that mental disorders were caused by possession of demons or the devil, and instead looked to natural causes. He firmly believed the symptoms of mental disorders were due to diseases originating in the brain. Hippocrates suspected that these states of insanity were due to imbalances of fluids in
4982-406: The disturbances that people experience in their daily lives, and by finding the source of these disturbances, one should be able to eliminate the disturbance itself. This is accomplished by a variety of methods, with some popular ones being free association , hypnosis , and insight . The goal of these methods is to induce a catharsis , or emotional release in the patient, which should indicate that
5076-468: The early 20th century remained open at the start of the 21st century. In 1963, President John F. Kennedy launched the community health movement in the United States as a "bold new approach" to mental health care, aimed at coordinating mental health services for citizens in mental health centers. In the span of 40 years, the United States was able to see an about 90 percent drop in the number of patients in psychiatric hospitals. Deinstitutionalisation ended
5170-685: The evidence was over-reliant on imaginative discourse in therapy, and on patient reports of their state-of-mind. These subjective experiences are inaccessible to others. Philosopher of science Karl Popper argued that much of Freudianism was untestable and therefore not scientific. In 1975 literary critic Frederick Crews began a decades-long campaign against the scientific credibility of Freudianism. This culminated in Freud: The Making of an Illusion which aggregated years of criticism from many quarters. Medical schools and psychology departments no longer offer much training in psychodynamics, according to
5264-503: The first supernatural tradition, also called the demonological method, abnormal behaviors are attributed to agents outside human bodies. According to this model, abnormal behaviors are caused by demons , aliens , or spirits, or the influences of the Moon , planets, and stars. During the Stone Age, trepanning was performed on those who had mental illness , to literally cut the evil spirits out of
5358-407: The following categories: These categories are used to organize the various Abnormal psychological concepts based on their similarity. Section III of the DSM-5 contains the various methods and strategies that are used to make clinical decisions, understand culture, and explore emerging diagnoses. The major international nosologic system for the classification of mental disorders can be found in
5452-601: The four Ds when defining abnormality: Benjamin Lahey and colleagues first proposed a general "psychopathology factor" in 2012, or simply "p factor". This construct shares its conceptual similarity with the g factor of general intelligence . Instead of conceptualising psychopathology as consisting of several discrete categories of mental disorders, the p factor is dimensional and influences whether psychiatric symptoms in general are present or absent. The symptoms that are present then combine to form several distinct diagnoses. The p factor
5546-529: The general public to create more humane mental health care in these overcrowded hospitals. That same year, the National Institute of Mental Health was also created, which provided support for the training of hospital employees, and research into the conditions of the patients. During this period, the Hill-Burton Acts was also passed, which was a program that funded mental health hospitals. Along with
5640-412: The heart of psychological processes, according to Freud, is the ego, which he envisions as battling with three forces: the id, the super-ego, and the outside world. The id is the unconscious reservoir of libido, the psychic energy that fuels instincts and psychic processes. The ego serves as the general manager of personality, making decisions regarding the pleasures that will be pursued at the id's demand,
5734-434: The idea that the patients should be treated with kindness, and not the cruelty inflicted on them, as if they were animals or criminals. His experimental ideas, such as removing the chains from the patients, were met with reluctance. The experiments in kindness proved to be a great success, which helped to bring about a reform in the way mental institutions would be run. Institutionalization would continue to improve throughout
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#17328546536505828-428: The individual is vulnerable and cannot cope with environmental stress, which is leading them to have problems functioning in daily life in their emotions, mental thinking, physical actions and talks. Behaviors that are adaptive are ones that are well-suited to the nature of people, their lifestyles and surroundings, and to the people that they communicate with, allowing them to understand each other. Clinical psychology
5922-458: The individual. This philosophical idea would remain in perspective until the seventeenth century. It was later challenged by Laing (1960) along with Laing and Esterson (1964) who noted that it was the family environment that led to the formation of adaptive strategies. In the eighteenth century's Romantic Movement , the idea that healthy parent-child relationships provided sanity became a prominent idea. Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau introduced
6016-508: The interaction of the emotional and motivational forces that affect behavior and mental states, especially on a subconscious level; (b) inner forces affecting behavior: the study of the emotional and motivational forces that affect behavior and states of mind. Freud proposed that psychological energy was constant (hence, emotional changes consisted only in displacements) and that it tended to rest ( point attractor ) through discharge ( catharsis ). In mate selection psychology, psychodynamics
6110-426: The introduction, use, and basics of the DSM-5. Section II includes diagnostic criteria and codes. Section III includes emerging measures and models. Section I of the DSM-5 briefly prefaces purpose, content, structure, and use. This includes basics, introductions and cautionary statements for forensic use. Information is also given about the revision and review processes as well as the DSM-5's goals to harmonize with
6204-581: The long-term confinement of patients in isolating mental hospitals, which could and did cause long-term negative adaptations. For instance, institutionalizing people with schizophrenia worsens negative symptoms . However, the practice is sometimes criticised for a perceived rise in homelessness amongst people who were previously institutionalized, or are presumed that they would have been in the institution era. People have tried to explain and control abnormal behavior for thousands of years. Historically, there have been three main approaches to abnormal behavior:
6298-442: The means of effective treatment for the patients. Even though the reform movement had occurred, patients were often still met with cruel and inhumane treatment. Things began to change in the year 1946, when Mary Jane Ward published the influential novel titled The Snake Pit , which was made into a popular movie of the same name . The book called attention to the conditions which mental patients faced, and helped to spark concern in
6392-415: The medical model of mental disturbance and as such, is a term more commonly used in the medical specialty known as psychiatry . Hippocrates (460–377 BCE) hypothesized that the body and mind become unwell when the so-called humors , vital fluids in the body, become unbalanced. The four temperaments theory posits four such humors: black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. Each humor was associated with
6486-466: The mentally ill. Mental hospitals began to grow substantially in numbers during the 20th century, as care for the mentally ill increased in them. By 1939, there were over 400,000 patients in state mental hospitals in the US. Hospital stays were normally quite long for the patients, with some individuals being treated for many years. These hospitals, while better than the asylums of the past, were still lacking in
6580-418: The notion that trauma in childhood could have negative implications later in adulthood. In the 1600s and 1700s insane asylums started to be opened to house those with mental disorders. Asylums were places where restraint techniques and treatments could be tested on patients who were confined. These were early precursors for psychiatric hospitals. In 1875 the German book Textbook of Forensic Psychopathology
6674-422: The p factor are more likely to have inherited a genetic predisposition to mental illness. The existence of the p factor may explain why it has been "... challenging to find causes, consequences, biomarkers, and treatments with specificity to individual mental disorders." A 2020 review of the p factor found that many studies support its validity and that it is generally stable throughout one's life. A high p factor
6768-578: The person's safety requirements, and the moral dictates of the superego that will be followed. The superego refers to the repository of an individual's moral values, divided into the conscience – the internalization of a society's rules and regulations – and the ego-ideal – the internalization of one's goals. Hence, the basic psychodynamic model focuses on the dynamic interactions between the id, ego, and superego. Psychodynamics, subsequently, attempts to explain or interpret behaviour or mental states in terms of innate emotional forces or processes. Freud used
6862-533: The person. In some instances, individuals exhibiting unusual thoughts or behaviors have been exiled from society, or worse. Perceived witchcraft, for example, has been punished by death. Two Catholic Inquisitors wrote the Malleus Maleficarum (Latin for "The Hammer Against Witches"), which was used by many Inquisitors and witch-hunters. It contained an early taxonomy of perceived deviant behavior, and proposed guidelines for prosecuting deviant individuals. In
6956-470: The post-traumatic and socio-cognitive models. The post-traumatic model states that DID is caused by inescapable past trauma, such as child abuse. The child dissociates and forms alternate personalities as a coping mechanism, in response to the current trauma. Even when the trauma ends, the personalities continue to disrupt the person's life longterm. The socio-cognitive model states that people will implicitly act as if they have multiple personalities and that it
7050-446: The power of witches , demons, and spirits caused abnormal behaviors. People with psychological disorders were thought to be possessed by evil spirits that had to be exorcised through religious rituals. If exorcism failed, some authorities advocated steps such as confinement, beating, and other types of torture to make the body uninhabitable to witches, demons, and spirits. The belief that witches, demons, and spirits are responsible for
7144-473: The practice of cutting a hole into the individual's skull in order to release the malevolent spirits. Although it has been difficult to define abnormal psychology, one definition includes characteristics such as statistical infrequency. A more formalized response to spiritual beliefs about abnormality is the practice of exorcism. Performed by religious authorities, exorcism is thought of as another way to release evil spirits who cause pathological behavior within
7238-407: The presence of psychopathology in an individual as a whole. One strategy is to assess a person along four dimensions: deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger, known collectively as the four Ds. Another conceptualisation, the p factor, sees psychopathology as a general, overarching construct that influences psychiatric symptoms. Mental disorders are defined by a set of characteristic features, that
7332-431: The same theory leads to reductionism (explaining a disorder or other complex phenomena using only a single idea or perspective). Most mental disorders are composed of several factors, which is why one must take into account several theoretical perspectives, when attempting to diagnose or explain a particular behavioral abnormality or mental disorder. Explaining mental disorders with a combination of theoretical perspectives
7426-403: The source of the problem has been tapped, and it can then be treated. Freud's psychosexual stages also played a key role in this form of therapy, as he would often believe that the problems the patient was experiencing were due to them becoming stuck, or " fixated ", in a particular stage. Dreams also played a major role in this form of therapy, as Freud viewed dreams as a way to gain insight into
7520-452: The term energy in relation to mental functioning. Psychodynamics was initially further developed by Carl Jung , Alfred Adler and Melanie Klein . By the mid-1940s and into the 1950s, the general application of the "psychodynamic theory" had been well established. In his 1988 book Introduction to Psychodynamics – a New Synthesis , psychiatrist Mardi J. Horowitz states that his own interest and fascination with psychodynamics began during
7614-538: The term psychodynamics to describe the processes of the mind as flows of psychological energy ( libido ) in an organically complex brain . The idea for this came from his first year adviser, Ernst von Brücke at the University of Vienna , who held the view that all living organisms, including humans, are basically energy-systems to which the principle of the conservation of energy applies. This principle states that "the total amount of energy in any given physical system
7708-481: The therapist during treatment and free association. Psychodynamic therapies depend upon a psychoanalytic understanding of inner conflict, wherein unconcious thoughts, desires, and memories influence behavior and psychological problems are caused by unconcious or repressed conflicts. Despite largely falling out of favor as the primary modality of psychotherapy and facing criticism as being "non-empirical", psychodynamic treatment has been shown to be effective at treating
7802-436: The trauma, shame, guilt, anger, hypervigilance, and social withdrawal. PTSD symptoms can arise due to various experiences that involve actual or threatened violence, injury, or death. Firsthand experience, witnessing, or learning about traumatic experiences can possibly lead to the development of PTSD. The DSM-5 is the manual where most commonly discussed and researched information about this particular topic of abnormalities
7896-643: The unconscious mind. Patients were often asked to keep dream journals to bring in for discussion during the next therapy session. There are many potential problems associated with this style of therapy, including resistance to the repressed memory or feeling, and negative transference onto the therapist. Psychoanalysis was carried on by many after Freud, including his daughter Anna Freud , and Jacques Lacan . Many others have also gone on to elaborate on Freud's original theory, and to add their own take on defense mechanisms or dream analysis . While psychoanalysis has fallen out of favor to more modern forms of therapy, it
7990-408: The underlying cause of disorders, which might include genetic inheritance, related physical disorders, infections, and chemical imbalances. Medical treatments are often pharmacological in nature, although medication is often used in conjunction with some other type of psychotherapy." According to Sigmund Freud's structural model , the id, ego, and superego are three theoretical constructs that define
8084-504: The various circles of influence on the individual, ranging from close friends and family, to the institutions and policies of a country, or the world as a whole. Discriminations, whether based on social class, income, race and ethnicity, or gender, can influence the development of abnormal behaviour. The number of different theoretical perspectives in the field of psychological abnormality has made it difficult to properly explain psychopathology. The attempt to explain all mental disorders with
8178-505: The victim's head. Conversely, Ancient Chinese , Ancient Egyptians , and Hebrews believed that these were evil demons or spirits and advocated exorcism . By the time of the Greeks and Romans , mental illnesses were thought to be caused by an imbalance of the four humors which lead treatments like the draining of fluids from the brain . During the Medieval period, many Europeans believed that
8272-421: The way an individual interacts with the external world, as well as responding to internal forces The Id represents the instinctual drives of an individual that remain unconscious. The super-ego represents a person's conscience and their internalization of societal norms and morality. Finally, the ego serves to realistically integrate the drives of the id with the prohibitions of the super-ego. Lack of development in
8366-560: Was famous for its deplorable conditions. Asylums remained popular throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance era . These early asylums often had miserable conditions. Patients were seen as a "burden" to society, locked away and treated almost like beasts to be dealt with, rather than patients needing treatment. However, many of the patients received helpful medical treatment. There was scientific curiosity into abnormal behavior, although it
8460-427: Was inspired by the theory of thermodynamics and used the term psychodynamics to describe the processes of the mind as flows of psychological energy ( libido or psi) in an organically complex brain . However, modern usage differentiates psychoanalytic practice as referring specifically to the earliest forms of psychotherapy, practiced by Freud and his immediate followers, and psychodynamic practice as practice that
8554-943: Was published by Robert Sommer . Sigmund Freud proposed a method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Talking therapy would originate from his ideas on the individual's experiences and the natural human efforts to make sense of the world and life. The study of psychopathology is interdisciplinary, with contributions coming from clinical psychology , abnormal psychology , social psychology , and developmental psychology , as well as neuropsychology and other psychology subdisciplines. Other related fields include psychiatry , neuroscience , criminology , social work , sociology , epidemiology , and statistics . Psychopathology can be broadly separated into descriptive and explanatory. Descriptive psychopathology involves categorising, defining and understanding symptoms as reported by people and observed through their behaviour which are then assessed according to
8648-468: Was published, written by Richard von Krafft-Ebing , which became a standard psychiatric textbook for Universities across Germany . The scientific discipline of psychopathology was founded by Karl Jaspers in 1913. It was referred to as "static understanding" and its purpose was to graphically recreate the "mental phenomenon" experienced by the client. A few years earlier, in 1899, the German book Lehrbuch der Psychopathologischen Untersuchungs-Methoden
8742-450: Was rarely investigated in the early asylums. Inmates in these early asylums were often put on display for profit, as they were viewed as less than human. The early asylums were basically modifications of the existing criminal institutions. In the late 18th century, the idea of humanitarian treatment for the patients gained much favor, due to the work of Philippe Pinel in France. He pushed for
8836-422: Was to discover some twenty years later that the laws of dynamics could be applied to man's personality as well as to his body. When he made his discovery Freud proceeded to create a dynamic psychology . A dynamic psychology is one that studies the transformations and exchanges of energy within the personality . This was Freud’s greatest achievement, and one of the greatest achievements in modern science, It
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