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108-586: The PSB does not only act as a proton injector for the PS but also provides protons at an energy of 1.4 GeV to On-Line Isotope Mass Separator (ISOLDE), the only experimental facility directly linked to the PSB. Before the PSB became operational in 1972, the protons were directly delivered to the Proton Synchrotron (PS) by the linear accelerator Linac 1 , providing the PS with protons of 50 MeV, which were then accelerated by

216-570: A Faraday cage as well as a laser laboratory and control station. The offline facility is designed for target test studies, and upgraded to include potential for the production and study of molecular ion beams. Below is the list of some physics activities done at ISOLDE facility. The ISOLDE facility continuously develops the nuclear chart, and was the first to study structural evolution in long chains of noble gas, alkali elements and mercury isotopes. The ISOLTRAP experimental setup Is able to make high precision measurements of nuclear masses by using

324-536: A MR-ToF, to increase the flight path of the ions. Currently, the experiment is being designed and constructed. The S cattering E xperiments C hamber (SEC) experiment facilitates diversified reaction experiments, and is complimentary to the ISS and Miniball, due to SEC not detecting gamma radiation . The station is used to study low-lying resonances in light atomic nuclei through transfer reactions. The V ersatile I on polarisation T echnique O nline (VITO) experiment

432-488: A better chance to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal measurements. Many different paths exist for upgrading colliders . A collection of different designs of the high luminosity interaction regions is being maintained by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). A workshop was held in 2006 to establish the most promising options. Increasing LHC luminosity involves reduction of

540-513: A common central beam-line used to provide beam to the various experimental setups located in the ISOLDE facility. The IS OLDE COOL er (ISCOOL) is located downstream from the HRS, and extends up to the merging switchyard joining the two mass separator beams. ISCOOL is a general-purpose Radio Frequency Quadrupole Cooler and Buncher (RFQCB), with the purpose of cooling (improving the beam quality) and bunching

648-489: A decay volume of 10 m , which is 3 orders of magnitude higher than FASER and will increase the sensitivity range by 4 orders of magnitude. It will probe into the regime of dark photons , dark Higgs bosons , heavy neutral leptons , and weak gauge boson coupling. It will also have the subdetector FASERnu for neutrino and antineutrino observations. LHCb: LHCb will receive reduced aperture central vacuum chambers during LS2. The Vertex Locator (VELO) detector which measures

756-543: A doublet-quadrupole. The XT01 beamline leads to Miniball, the XT02 beamline leads to the ISS, and the XT03 beamline leads to movable setups, such as the SEC scattering chamber. Offline 2 was recently installed as a mass separator beamline at ISOLDE, with the purpose of satisfying the increased demands on the original offline facility, Offline 1. The facility includes the beamline enclosed in

864-499: A factor of 10. However, at the LUMI'06 workshop, several suggestions were proposed that would boost the LHC peak luminosity by a factor of 10 beyond nominal towards 1⋅10  cm ⋅s . The peak luminosity at LHC was limited due to the cooling capacity of its triplet magnets and secondly due to the detector limits. The resultant higher event rate posed challenges for the particle detectors located in

972-475: A light target. Conditions produced by this reaction replicate those present in astrophysical processes, and measuring the properties of the atomic nuclei will also provide a better understanding of nucleon-nucleon interactions in exotic nuclei. The experiment was commissioned in 2021 and finished construction during the Long Shutdown 2 . The ISOLTRAP experiment is a high-precision mass spectrometer that uses

1080-441: A metal tube with a high work function heated up to 2400 °C, so that the atom can be ionised. If an atom cannot be surface ionised, the plasma ion source is used. The plasma is produced by an ionised gas mixture and optimised using an additional magnetic field. The laser ion source used at ISOLDE is RILIS. The GPS is made with a double focusing magnet with a bending radius of 1.5 m and a bending angle of 70°. The resolution of

1188-446: A network of High Energy Beam Transfer (HEBT) beamlines to the ISOLDE facility. The common section beamline, XT00, joins to three bending beamlines (XT01, XT02, XT03) leading to different experiment setups. The three identical beamlines are independent of each other, for example, if the first XT01 dipole magnet is off, the beam will continue to the XT02 and XT03. They all bend the beam by 90 degrees and focus it using two dipole magnets and

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1296-502: A new technique for producing radioisotopes which enabled production of isotopes with shorter half-lives than earlier methods. The Copenhagen experiment they carried out included a simplified version of the same elements used in modern on-line experiments. Ten years later, in Vienna , at a symposium about separating radioisotopes, plans for an ‘on-line’ isotope separator were published. Using these plans, CERN's Nuclear Chemistry Group (NCG) built

1404-666: A particular element, which separates the radioisotopes by their atomic number. Once extracted, the isotopes are directed either to one of several low-energy nuclear physics experiments or an isotope-harvesting area. A major upgrade of the REX post-accelerator to the HIE-ISOLDE ( H igh I ntensity and E nergy Upgrade) superconducting linac completed construction in 2018, allowing for the re-acceleration of radioisotopes to higher energies than previously achievable. Most atomic nuclei contain protons and neutrons. The number of protons determines

1512-508: A potential new magic number, 32, which was later disproven by the CRIS experiment. A nuclear isomer is a metastable state of a nucleus, in which one or more nucleons occupy higher energy levels than in the ground state of the same nucleus. In the mid-2000s, REX-ISOLDE developed a technique to select and post-accelerate isomeric beams to use in nuclear-decay experiments, such as at Miniball. The first observation of beta-delayed two-neutron emission

1620-511: A prototype on-line mass separator coupled to target and ion source, which was bombarded by a 600 MeV proton beam delivered by CERN's the Synchro-Cyclotron . The test was a success and showed that the SC was an ideal machine for on-line rare isotope production. The plan for an electromagnetic isotope separator was developed during 1963–4 by European nuclear physicists and, in late 1964, their proposal

1728-474: A series of Penning traps. The experiment has been able to measure isotopes with very short half-lives (<100 ms) with a precision of below 10 . For his work on "key contributions to the masses..." of isotopes at ISOLTRAP, among other work, Heinz-Jürgen Kluge was a recipient of the Lise Meitner Prize in 2006. Atomic nuclei are usually spherical, however gradual changes in nuclear shape can occur when

1836-554: A smaller diameter. The tracking system and the time projection chambers will be upgraded along with a new faster interaction trigger detector. ATLAS: The liquid argon calorimeter at ATLAS will be upgraded to identify the electrons and photons more effectively. The main readout electronics of the calorimeter will be completely replaced to let the detector identify rare particle interactions. These changes are planned for Long Shutdown 3 (LS3) of LHC. CMS: CMS will carry out numerous upgrades to its inner tracking system,

1944-408: A specific element's successive electron transition energies. Ionisation will only occur of the desired element, and the other elements within the ion-source will remain unchanged. This process of laser ionisation takes place in a hot metal cavity to provide the spatial confinement needed for the atomic vapour to be illuminated. A high frequency laser system is needed to ionise the atom before it leaves

2052-447: A wider mass range, from He up to Ra. The post-accelerator has delivered accelerated beams of more than 100 isotopes and 30 elements since its commissioning. To be able to satisfy the ever-increasing needs of higher quality, intensity, and energy of the production beam is very important for facilities such as ISOLDE. As the latest response to satisfy these needs, HIE-ISOLDE upgrade project is currently ongoing. Due to its phased planning,

2160-468: Is a beamline used to investigate the weak interaction and determine properties of short-lived unstable nuclei. The experiment uses the technique of optical pumping to produce laser-polarised RIBs allowing for versatile studies. There are three independent studies on the VITO beamline including a β- NMR spectroscopy station. The W eak I nteraction S tudies with 32 Ar D ecay (WISArD) experiment investigates

2268-488: Is a more general term than isotope, and refers to atoms that have any particular number of protons and neutrons. Stable nuclides are not radioactive and do not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay, so are more usually found in nature. Whereas unstable (i.e. radioactive) nuclides are not found in nature, unless there is a recent source of them, because they are shorter lived, and will spontaneously decay , in one or more steps, to more stable nuclides. For example, carbon-14

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2376-429: Is a reconstructed version of the ISOLDE 3. The first experiment at the new facility, known as ISOLDE PSB, was performed on 26 June 1992. In May 1995, two industrial robots were installed in the facility to handle the targets and ion sources units without human intervention. To diversify the scientific activities of the facility, a post-accelerator system called REX-ISOLDE ( R adioactive beam EX periments at ISOLDE)

2484-410: Is also a possibility for HL-LHC to detect BSM phenomena such as baryogenesis , dark matter , answers to the flavour problem , neutrino masses and insights into the strong CP problem . The upgrades to the heavy-ion injectors are also in progress and would bring up even more opportunities to observe very rare phenomena and to search for BSM physics. The HL-LHC project was initiated in 2010, and

2592-543: Is an upgrade to the Large Hadron Collider , operated by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), located at the French-Swiss border near Geneva . From 2011 to 2020, the project was led by Lucio Rossi . In 2020, the lead role was taken up by Oliver Brüning. The upgrade started as a design study in 2010, for which a European Framework Program 7 grant was allocated in 2011, with goal of boosting

2700-408: Is based on a Total Absorption gamma Spectrometer (TAS), which measures the gamma transitions in an unstable parent nucleus. From these measurements, nuclear structure is analysed and used to confirm theoretical models and make stellar predictions. The Miniball experiment is a gamma-ray spectroscopy setup consisting of a high-resolution germanium detector array. The experiment is used to analyse

2808-474: Is required to separator the subsequent ions, due to the small intensity after being extracted from EBIS. The next stage of REX-ISOLDE consists of a normal conducting (room-temperature) linac, where the ions are accelerated by an RFQ. An interdigital H-type (IH) structure uses resonators to boost the beam energy up to its maximum value. REX-ISOLDE was originally intended to accelerate light isotopes, but has passed this goal and provided post-accelerated beams of

2916-563: Is to have a high efficiency and highly reliable machine which can deliver the required integrated luminosity. Major goals of HL-LHC thus belong to the following five categories; improved Standard Model measurements, searches for beyond the Standard Model (BSM) physics, flavor physics of heavy quarks and leptons , studies of the properties of the Higgs boson , and the studies of QCD matter at high density and temperature. Measurements of

3024-404: Is unstable but is found in nature. Scientists use accelerators and nuclear reactors to produce radioactive nuclides. As a general trend, and among other factors, the neutron–proton ratio of a nuclide determines its stability. The value of this ratio for stable nuclides generally increases for larger nuclei with more protons and neutrons. Many unstable nuclides have neutron-proton ratios beyond

3132-465: The Long Shutdown 1 , three ISOLDE buildings were demolished. They've been built again as a new single building with a new control room, a data storage room, three laser laboratories, a biology and materials laboratory, and a room for visitors. Another building extension for the MEDICIS project and several others equipped with electrical, cooling and ventilation systems to be used for the HIE-ISOLDE project in

3240-600: The Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) took over PSB's former task of accelerating ions. Up to 1992, the only machine that used the output protons from the PSB was the PS. This changed in 1992, when the On-Line Isotope Mass Separator (ISOLDE) became the second recipient of PSB's protons. Before, ISOLDE had obtained protons from the Synchro-Cyclotron , but this machine had reached the end of its lifetime by

3348-576: The MEDICIS facility was initiated as part of ISOLDE, which uses leftover protons from ISOLDE targets to produce radioisotopes suitable for medical purposes. On-Line Isotope Mass Separator The ISOLDE (Isotope Separator On Line DEvice) Radioactive Ion Beam Facility , is an on-line isotope separator facility located at the centre of the CERN accelerator complex on the Franco-Swiss border. Created in 1964,

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3456-450: The emission channelling method to study lattice locations of dopants and impurities in crystals and epitaxial thin films. This is done by introducing short-lived isotope probes into the crystal and measuring the electron intensity affected to determine whether they have been affected by the decay particles emitted. The I SOLDE D ecay S tation (IDS) experiment is a setup that allows different experiment systems to be coupled to

3564-428: The heavy-ion sector, the integrated luminosities of 13 nb and 50 nb will be delivered for lead-lead and proton-lead collisions , respectively. The inverse femtobarn (fb ) unit measures the time-integrated luminosity in terms of the number of collisions per femtobarn of the target's cross-section . The increase in the integrated luminosity for the aforementioned major LHC experiments will provide

3672-516: The CMS and ATLAS detector. A ten-year-long joint project between CERN, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Fermilab , and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory known as United States Department of Energy LHC Accelerator Research Program (US–LARP) successfully built and tested such quadrupole magnets. 20 inner triplet quadrupoles are in the production phase at CERN and in the US. Dipole magnets: For inserting

3780-544: The GPS is approximately 800. The GPS sends beams to an electronic switchyard, allowing three mass separated beams to be simultaneously extracted. The second separator, the HRS, consists of two dipole magnets, with bending radii of 1 m and bending angles of 90° and 60°, and an elaborate ion-optical system. The overall resolution of the HRS has been measured as 7000, which enables it to be used for experiments requiring higher mass resolution values. The GPS switchyard and HRS are connected to

3888-532: The HL-LHC accelerator requirements, superconducting power transmission lines made of magnesium diboride (MgB 2 ) will be used to transmit the current of about 100,000 amperes. As part of the HL-LHC, significant changes will be made to the proton injector. The beams that come to LHC are pre-accelerated by following 4 accelerators. All four of these accelerators, together known as the Injectors will be upgraded through

3996-476: The HRS target, in order to produce radioisotopes for medical purposes. The irradiated target is then carried to the MEDICIS building by using an automated conveyor to separator and collect the isotopes of interest. The post-accelerator REX-ISOLDE is a combination of different devices used to accelerate radioisotopes to boost their energy to 10 MeV per nucleon, increased from 3 MeV per nucleon due to HIE-ISOLDE upgrades. The incoming RIBs have enough energy to overcome

4104-521: The Higgs boson and understanding its connection to the electroweak symmetry breaking remains the primary goal. In the domain of flavour physics; LHCb, ATLAS and CMS together will test the unitarity of the Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix , and ATLAS and CMS will measure the properties of the top quark , the fermion with the largest known mass and largest Yukawa coupling . HL-LHC will also add to

4212-594: The ISOLDE facility are there for shorter time periods, and generally focus on detecting specific decay modes of nuclei. The fixed experimental setups have a permanent position at the facility. They include: The CO Linear LA ser SP ectro S copy (COLLAPS) experiment has been operating at ISOLDE since the late 1970s and is the oldest active experiment at the facility. COLLAPS studies ground and isomeric state properties of highly-unstable ( exotic ), short-lived nuclei, including measurements of their spins , electro - magnetic moments and charge radii . The experiment uses

4320-463: The ISOLDE facility started delivering radioactive ion beams (RIBs) to users in 1967. Originally located at the S ynchro- C yclotron (SC) accelerator (CERN's first ever particle accelerator), the facility has been upgraded several times most notably in 1992 when the whole facility was moved to be connected to CERN's P roton S ynchroton B ooster (PSB). ISOLDE is currently the longest-running facility in operation at CERN, with continuous developments of

4428-473: The LHC Injector Upgrade (LIU) project during the Long Shutdown 2 (LS2). The LIU is responsible for delivering beams of very high brightness to HL-LHC. The proton injectors will be upgraded to produce proton beams with double the original luminosity and 2.4 times the brightness . The replacement of Linear Accelerator 2 (Linac2 - which delivered the proton beams) with Linear Accelerator 4 (Linac4)

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4536-522: The LHC Run-3. The upgrade plan for SND at HL-LHC is to continue developing the detector with the aim of improving the statistics of collision events, and expand its pseudorapidity range for studies of heavy-quark production and neutrino interactions. TOTEM : The TOTEM -CMS collaboration which has been operating the Proton Precision Spectrometer (PPS) since 2016, will measure

4644-500: The LHC was laid: the High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider . The much higher required beam intensity made it necessary to increase the PSB's output energy to 2.0 GeV. This was implemented during Long Shutdown 2 (2019–2020) by the exchange and update of various key equipment of the PSB, for example the main power supply, the radio-frequency system, the transfer line to the PS and the cooling system. Additionally,

4752-627: The PS to 25 GeV at beam intensities of approximately 10 protons per pulse. However, with the development of new experiments (mainly at the Intersecting Storage Rings ISR), the demanded beam intensities in the order of 10 protons per pulse exceeded the capabilities of this setup. Therefore, different approaches on how to increase the beam energy already before the protons enter the PS were discussed. Different suggestions for this new PS injector were made, for example another linear accelerator or five intersecting synchrotron rings inspired by

4860-510: The PS. In 2017, 1.51 × 10 protons were accelerated by the PSB. 61.45% of those were delivered to ISOLDE, and only a small fraction of 0.084% were used by the LHC. The only direct experiment that is fed by PSB's protons is the On-Line Isotope Mass Separator (ISOLDE). There, the protons are used to create different types of low-energy radioactive nuclei. With these, a wide variety of experiments ranging from nuclear and atomic physics to solid state physics and life sciences are conducted. In 2010,

4968-423: The PSB. Therefore, with only minor hardware adjustments, the PSB was upgraded to 1 GeV in 1988. From the beginning of the 1980s until 2003, the PSB was also used to accelerate light ions like oxygen or alpha-particles , which were delivered by Linac 1 . After Linac 3 as a dedicated ion linear accelerator became operational, also heavy ions such as lead and indium were accelerated by the PSB. From 2006 on,

5076-625: The RIB from the HRS. Incoming ions collide with the neutral buffer gas, losing their energy, and then are radially confined. The beam is then extracted from ISCOOL. The magnetic mass separators are able to separate isobars by mass number, however they are unable to sort isotopes of the same mass. If an experiment requires a higher degree of chemical purity, it will need the beam to have an additional separation, by proton number. RILIS provides this separation by using step-wise resonance photo-ionisation, involving precisely tuned laser wavelengths matched exactly to

5184-418: The SC shut down to upgrade its beam intensity by changing its radiofrequency system. The SC Improvement Program (SCIP) increased the primary proton beam intensity by about a factor of about 100. To be able to handle this high-intensity ISOLDE facility also needed some modifications to successfully extract the improved beam to ISOLDE. After necessary modifications, the new ISOLDE facility also known as ISOLDE 2

5292-448: The ToF detection technique to measure mass. Since the start of its operation, ISOLTRAP has measured the mass of hundreds of short-lived radioactive nuclei, as well as confirming the existence of doubly magic isotopes. The setup was upgraded in 2011 to include a multi-reflection time-of-flight mass spectrometer (MR-ToF), allowing the detection of more exotic isotopes. The LUCRECIA experiment

5400-561: The accelerator's potential for new discoveries in physics. The design study was approved by the CERN Council in 2016 and HL-LHC became a full-fledged CERN project. The upgrade work is currently in progress and physics experiments are expected to start taking data at the earliest in 2028. The HL-LHC project will deliver proton-proton collisions at 14 TeV with an integrated luminosity of 3 ab for both ATLAS and CMS experiments, 50 fb for LHCb , and 5 fb for ALICE . In

5508-871: The beam intensity will decrease due to the burn-off of the circulating proton beams inside the collider. Maintaining the intensity at a constant level throughout the lifespan of beam is thus a major challenge. Nevertheless, plan is to at least have a system that would allow beam focusing or the concentration of the beams before the collision to remain constant. Cryogenics: Implementation of HL-LHC would require larger cryogenic plants, plus larger 1.8 Kelvin refrigerators, along with sub-cooling heat exchangers. New cooling circuits are also to be developed. The majority of these upgrades are for interaction points, P1, P4, P5, and P7. While P1, P4, and P5 will receive new cryogenic plants, P7 will have new cryogenic circuits. Machine protection and collimators: The collimators are responsible for absorbing any extra particles that deviate from

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5616-424: The beam size at the collision point, and either the reduction of bunch length and spacing, or significant increase in bunch length and population. The maximum instantaneous luminosity increase of the existing nominal LHC luminosity (1⋅10  cm ⋅s ) is about a factor of 4 higher than the LHC's performance at its peak luminosity of 2⋅10  cm ⋅s , unfortunately far below the LHC upgrade project's initial ambition of

5724-505: The border, it was decided to build the main PSB construction underground. The only visible PSB infrastructure is located on the Swiss side. The PSB consists of four vertically stacked rings with a radius of 25 meters. Each ring is sectioned into 16 periods with two dipole magnets per period and a triplet focusing structure made up of three quadrupole magnets (focusing, defocusing, focusing). Every magnet structure consists of four single magnets for

5832-404: The cavity. All in all, the ISOLDE facility provides 1300 isotopes from 75 elements in the periodic table. The project CERN-MEDICIS is running to supply radioactive isotopes for medical applications. The proton beams from the PSB preserve 90% of their intensities after hitting a standard target in the facility. The CERN-MEDICIS facility uses the remaining protons on a target that is placed behind

5940-444: The chemical element the nucleus belongs to. Different isotopes of the same element have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, but contain the same number of protons. For example, isotopes of carbon include carbon-12 , carbon-13 , carbon-14 , which contain 6, 7, 8 neutrons respectively, but all contain 6 protons. Each isotope of an element has a different nuclear energy state , and may have different stability. A nuclide

6048-460: The collision areas. Through the ongoing upgrades, HL-LHC's peak luminosity is expected to be 5⋅10  cm ⋅s and would most likely be pushed to 7.5⋅10  cm ⋅s . The HL-LHC upgrade being applicable to almost all major LHC experiments has a wide range of physics goals. Increasing the number of collisions to 140—each time the proton particle beams meet at the center of the ATLAS and CMS detectors—from

6156-560: The construction of a new facility for medical research called CERN MEDICIS ( MED ical I sotopes C ollected from IS OLDE) started. Of the incident proton beams used at ISOLDE, only 10% are actually stopped in the targets and achieve their objective, while the remaining 90% are not used. The MEDICIS facility is designed to work with the remaining proton beams that have already passed a first target. The second target produces specific radioisotopes that are delivered to hospitals and research facilities and can be made injectable. In 2013, during

6264-402: The crab cavities is to tilt and project the beams in the required direction. This tilting maximizes the overlap between the colliding bunches, leading to an increase in the achievable instantaneous luminosity. ATLAS and CMS together will have 16 crab cavities; which will give transverse momentum to the beams to increase the collision probability. Beam optics: As per the current HL-LHC design

6372-440: The current number of 30, will open a number of new avenues for observing rare processes and particles. The boost in the integrated luminosity , or evidently the larger collision event datasets that would be accumulated through HL-LHC in case of all the LHC experiments, is the most significant aspect towards achieving the goals described below. The motivation for the construction of large underground infrastructure at HL-LHC therefore,

6480-595: The decays of short-lived nuclei involved in Coulomb excitation and transfer reactions. Results from Miniball at ISOLDE that found evidence of pear-shaped heavy nuclei was named in the Institute of Physics (IoP) "top 10 breakthroughs in physics". The M ulti I on R eflection A pparatus for C o L linear S pectroscopy (MIRACLS) experiment determines properties exotic radioisotopes by measuring their hyperfine structure . MIRACLS uses laser spectrometer on ion bunches trapped in

6588-440: The design intensity of 10 protons per pulse. During the first years of operation, it became clear that the linear accelerator Linac 1 , CERN's primary proton source at that time, was unable to keep up with the technical advances of the other machines within the accelerator complex. Therefore, it was decided in 1963 to build a new linear accelerator, which would later be called Linac 2 . This new machine would provide protons with

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6696-430: The desired isobar of interest. The time required for the extraction process to occur is dictated by the nature of the desired isotope and/or that of the target material and places a lower limit on the half-life of isotopes which can be produced by this method, and is typically of the order of a few milliseconds. For an additional separation, the R esonance I onisation L aser I on S ource (RILIS) uses lasers to ionise

6804-477: The end of 2020 had provided external nine hospitals and research facilities with 41 batches of radioisotopes. Phase 2 of the facility's HIE-ISOLDE upgrade was completed in 2018, which allows ISOLDE to accelerate radioactive beams up to 10 MeV per nucleon. The ISOLDE facility contains the Class A laboratories, buildings for the HIE-ISOLDE and MEDICIS projects, and the control rooms located in building 508. Before ISOLDE,

6912-437: The end of the 1980s. Thus, it was decided in 1989 to connect ISOLDE to the PSB. With the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at the horizon, another upgrade of the PSB to 1.4 GeV was necessary. This upgrade implied more severe adjustments of the hardware than the previous upgrade to 1 GeV, because the limits of PSB's design parameters had been reached. In 2000, the upgrade was completed. In 2010, the cornerstone for another upgrade of

7020-616: The facility and is directed towards one of two mass separators: the General Purpose Separator (GPS) and the High Resolution Separator (HRS). The separators have independently run target-ion source systems, delivering 60 keV RIBs. The targets used at ISOLDE allow for the quick production and extraction of radioactive nuclei. Targets consist sometimes of molten metal kept at high temperature (700 °C to 1400 °C), which result in long isotope release times. Heating

7128-566: The facility and its experiments keeping ISOLDE at the forefront of science with RIBs. ISOLDE benefits a wide range of physics communities with applications covering nuclear, atomic, molecular and solid-state physics, but also biophysics and astrophysics, as well as high-precision experiments looking for physics beyond the Standard Model. The facility is operated by the ISOLDE Collaboration, comprising CERN and sixteen (mostly) European countries. As of 2019, close to 1,000 experimentalists around

7236-431: The facility. The new high-resolution separator, ISOLDE 3, was in full use by the end of the 80s. In 1990 a new ion source RILIS was installed at the facility to selectively and efficiently produce radioactive beams. The SC was decommissioned in 1990, after having been in operation for more than three decades. As a consequence, the collaboration decided to relocate the ISOLDE facility to the Proton Synchrotron , and place

7344-436: The first ISOLDE coordinator, and the underground hall was finished in 1967. On 16 October 1967, the first proton beams interacted with the target and the first experiments were successful in proving that the technique worked as expected. In 1969, the first paper was published with studies of various short-lived isotopes. Shortly after the ISOLDE experimental program started, some major improvements for SC were planned. In 1972

7452-653: The first potential threshold of the Penning trap, REXTRAP, but within the trap the ions lose energy through collisions with buffer gas atoms. This cools the ions and their movement is dampened by a combination of a radio-frequency (RF) excitation and a buffer gas. The ion bunches are extracted from REXTRAP and injected into REXEBIS. REXEBIS uses a strong magnetic field to focus electrons from an electron gun in order to produce highly charged ions. The ions are confined radially and longitudinally, after which they will undergo stepwise ionisation through electron impact. A mass separator

7560-472: The following has been the timeline till 2020, followed by the tentative future stages. 2010: HL-LHC was established at CERN as a design study. 2011: The FP7 HL-LHC design study was approved and started. 2014: The first preliminary report on the design study was published. 2015: Budget and schedule along with technical design report was made available. 2016: CERN Council approved the HL-LHC project with its initial budget and schedule. Followed by which

7668-549: The four PSB rings. These proton bunches are then recombined at the exit of the PSB and further transferred down the CERN injector chain. The PSB is part of CERN's accelerator complex. By the time it was constructed, the Meyrin campus had just been enlarged, now covering French territory as well. The center of PSB's rings sits directly on the border between France and Switzerland. Due to the countries’ different regulations regarding buildings at

7776-504: The four rings stacked on top of each other, sharing one yoke. Since the PSB consists of four rings in contrast to only one beamline in Linac 2 and one ring in the PS, a special construction is necessary to couple the proton beams in and out. The proton beam coming from Linac 2 is split up vertically into four different beams by the so-called proton distributor: The beam travels through a series of pulsed magnets, which successively deflect parts of

7884-470: The future were also built. In addition, the robots which were installed for the handling of radioactive targets have been replaced with more modern robots. In 2015, for the first time, a radioactive isotope beam could be accelerated to an energy level of 4.3 MeV per nucleon in the ISOLDE facility thanks to the HIE-ISOLDE upgrades. In late 2017, the CERN-MEDICIS facility produced its first radioisotopes and by

7992-765: The hardware parts consisting of components and models were validated. Between 2018 and 2020: The prototypes were tested and final Technical Design report was published. The underground excavation work was also carried out. Although the civil engineering work and prototyping process would continue till the end of 2021. Between 2019 and 2024: The construction and testing of hardware parts is planned. 2021-2023: All surface bindings would be delivered. 2022-2024: The inner triplet string will be installed followed by its operation test. 2025-2027: New magnets, crab-cavities, cryo-plants, collimators, superconducting links, ancillary equipment, and absorbers are planned to be installed. If all above planned activities are completed according to

8100-436: The incoming beam to different angles. This results in four beamlets filling the four rings, as well as the rising and falling edge of the proton pulse, which get dumped after the proton distributor. Similarly, the four beamlets are merged again after they have gotten accelerated by the PSB. With a series of different magnetic structures, the beams from the four rings are brought to one vertical level and are then directed towards

8208-415: The input energy of the PSB has been increased: Linac4 , provides an output beam energy of 160 MeV, replacing Linac2 . Linac4 enables the PSB to provide higher quality beam for the LHC by using hydrogen anions (H ions) rather than bare protons (H ions). A stripping foil at the PSB injection point will strip the electrons off the hydrogen anions, thus creating protons that are accumulated as beam bunches in

8316-404: The knowledge of parton distribution functions (PDFs) by measuring several Standard Model processes with the jets, top quarks , photons and electroweak gauge bosons in their final state. The jet and photon production in the heavy ion collisions forms the basis of QCD perturbation theory probes, and HL-LHC will measure this at very high energy scales. Owing to these high energy collisions, there

8424-444: The new collimators , two of the LHC's dipole magnets will have to be replaced with smaller ones. They would be stronger (11 tesla) than LHC's dipole magnets (8.3 tesla) and be more powerful in bending the beam trajectories. As of now six 11 T dipoles are in the production phase. These magnets would probably be installed only after HL-LHC is fully implemented, although the final decision is yet to come. Crab cavities: The function of

8532-635: The next and final phase will replace REX structures after the IH-structure (IHS) with two low-beta cryomodules. This will improve the beam quality and allow a continuously variable energy between 0.45 and 10 MeV per nucleon. As a state-of-the-art project, HIE-ISOLDE is expected to expand the research opportunities in ISOLDE facility to the next level. When completed, the upgraded facility will be able to host advanced experiments in fields like nuclear physics and nuclear astrophysics . ISOLDE contains both temporary and fixed experimental setups. Temporary setups in

8640-425: The number of neutrons of a given element changes. Research published in 1971 showed that if single neutrons are added to or removed from the nuclei of mercury isotopes, the shape will change to a "rugby ball". Newer studies, from RILIS, show that this shape staggering also occurs with bismuth isotopes. The island of inversion is a region of the chart of nuclides in which isotopes have enhanced stability, compared to

8748-401: The original beam trajectory and can potentially damage the machines. The higher luminosities are bound to generate such highly energetic particles. HL-LHC design thus contains ways to prevent damages by replacing 60 out of 118 collimators and adding about 20 new ones. The upgraded collimators will also have lower electromagnetic interference with beams. Superconducting power lines: To meet

8856-443: The primary and displaced vertices of short-lived particles will be enhanced to meet the increased radiation and particle interaction rates. MoEDAL: For LHCs Run-3 MoEDAL will implement a new sub-detector called MoEDAL's Apparatus for the detection of Penetrating Particles (MAPP). For HL-LHC MAPP-1 would be upgraded to MAPP-2. Scattering and Neutrino Detector (SND): SND and will begin its first operation only in 2022, during

8964-412: The proton beam with the target material produces radioactive species through spallation , fragmentation and fission reactions. They are subsequently extracted from the bulk of the target material through thermal diffusion processes by heating the target to about 2,000 °C. The cocktail of produced isotopes is ultimately filtered using one of ISOLDE's two magnetic dipole mass separators to yield

9072-488: The radioactive nuclides were transported from the production are to the laboratory for examination. At ISOLDE, all processes from the production to the measurements are connected and the radioactive material requires no extra transport. Due to this, ISOLDE is referred to as an on-line facility. At the ISOLDE facility, the main proton beam for reactions comes from the PSB. The incoming proton beam has an energy of 1.4 GeV and its average intensity varies up to 2 μA. The beam enters

9180-464: The reduction of beam quality. The HIE-ISOLDE project was approved in December 2009, and involves an upgrade of the energy range from 3 MeV per nucleon, to 5 MeV, and lastly to 10 MeV per nucleon. The design also incorporated an intensity upgrade to make best use of the delivered proton beams. The upgrade project was split into three different phases, to be completed over a number of years. In late 2013

9288-401: The same energy as before (50 MeV), but with higher beam currents of up to 150 mA and a longer pulse duration of 200 μs. Construction of Linac 2 started in December 1973 and was completed in 1978. Linac 1 continued to operate as a source of light ions up to 1992. After more than ten years of operation, the constant increase of the beam intensity also demanded an increase in output energy of

9396-481: The shape of the Olympic rings . Eventually, it was decided to go for a setup of four vertically stacked synchrotron rings with a radius of 25 meters, which was proposed in 1964. With this special design, it would become possible to reach the aspired intensities of more than 10 protons per pulse. In 1967, the budget of the overall update program was estimated to be 69.5 million CHF (1968 prices). More than half of this sum

9504-525: The station, using spectroscopy techniques such as fast timing or time-of-flight (ToF). The station, operational since 2014, is used to measure decay properties of a wide range of radioactive isotopes for a variety of applications. Results from the IDS have been useful for astrophysics, as they measured the probability of a particular decay seen in red giant stars . The I SOLDE S olenoidal S pectrometer (ISS) experiment uses an ex- MRI magnet to direct RIBs at

9612-517: The surrounding unstable nuclei. The island is associated with the magic neutron numbers ( N = 8, 14, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126), where this breakdown occurs. Various experiments at ISOLDE have determined properties of these island of inversion isotopes, including the first of their kind measurements performed with Miniball on magnesium-32, lying in the island of inversion at N = 20. Furthermore, the ISOLTRAP experiment provided results using calcium-52 to reveal

9720-455: The target to higher temperatures, typically above 2000 °C, makes for a faster release time. Using a target heavier than the desired isotope, results in production via spallation or fragmentation. The ion sources, used in combination with the targets at ISOLDE, produce an ion beam of (preferably) one chemical element. There are three types used: surface ion sources, plasma ion sources and laser ion sources. The surface ion sources consist of

9828-453: The targets in an external beam from its 1 GeV booster. The construction of the new ISOLDE experimental hall started about three months prior to the decommissioning of the SC. With the relocation also came several upgrades. The most notable being the installation of two new magnetic dipole mass separators. One general-purpose separator with one bending magnet and the other one is a high-resolution separator with two bending magnets. The latter one

9936-526: The technique of collinear spectroscopy using lasers to access necessary atomic transitions . The C ollinear R esonance I onization S pectroscopy (CRIS) experiment uses fast beam collinear laser spectroscopy alongside the technique of resonance ionization to produce results with a high resolution and efficiency. The experiment studies group-state properties of exotic nuclei and produces isomeric beams used for decay studies. The E mission C hanneling with S hort- L ived I sotopes (EC-SLI) experiment uses

10044-487: The timeline, HL-LHC would be able to start its physics operation in 2028. The following upgrades to machine systems forms the core of the new HL-LHC. Quadrupole magnets: The strong magnets along with the huge rings are a necessary aspect of LHC's functionality. HL-LHC will have quadrupole magnets with the strength of 12 tesla as opposed to 8 tesla in LHC. Such superconducting magnets made up of inter-metallic niobium-tin (Nb 3 Sn), compound would be installed around

10152-430: The trigger system, the calorimeter, and the muon detection systems during Long Shutdown 2 (LS2) and LS3. These changes are based on the expected pile-up densities and increase in radiation due to the higher luminosity. Similar changes are also planned for the ATLAS experiment. FASER-2: LHC's FASER experiment will undergo several upgrades and be turned into FASER-2 to fully utilize HL-LHC's capabilities. It will have

10260-473: The underground hall at CERN was being excavated, the isotope separator for ISOLDE was being constructed in Aarhus . In May 1966, the SC shut down for some major modifications. One of these modifications was the construction of a new tunnel to send proton beams to a future underground hall that would be dedicated to ISOLDE. Separator construction made good progress in 1966, along with the appointing of Arve Kjelberg as

10368-510: The upgrade project is being carried out with the least impact on the experiments continuing in the facility. The project included an energy increase for the REX-ISOLDE up to 10 MeV as well as resonator and cooler upgrades, enhancement of the input beam from PSB, improvements on targets, ion sources, and mass separators. Following the completion of the phase two upgrade in 2018 for the HIE-ISOLDE which included installing four high-beta cryomodules ,

10476-577: The weak interaction to search for physics beyond the Standard Model (SM). The WISArD setup reuses some of the WITCH experiment 's infrastructure, as well as its superconducting magnet. The experiment measures the angular correlation between particles emitted by a parent and daughter nucleus to calculate non-SM contributions. Attached to ISOLDE in building 508, is CERN's solid-state physics laboratory. Solid state physics research (SSP) accounts for 10–15% of

10584-419: The world (including all continents) are coming to ISOLDE to perform typically 50 different experiments per year. Radioactive nuclei are produced at ISOLDE by shooting a high-energy (1.4GeV) beam of protons delivered by CERN's PSB accelerator on a 20 cm thick target. Several target materials are used depending on the desired final isotopes that are requested by the experimentalists. The interaction of

10692-645: The yearly allocation of beam time and uses about 20–25% of the overall number of experiments running at ISOLDE. The laboratory uses the technique of Time Differential Perturbed Angular Correlation (TDPAC) to probe the large quantity of available radioactive elements provided by ISOLDE. This technique has also been used to measure ferromagnetic and ferroelectric properties of materials, as well as providing ion beams for other facilities within ISOLDE. Additional methods used for SSP are tracer diffusion , online- Mössbauer spectroscopy ( Mn) and photoluminescence with radioactive nuclei. The HIE-ISOLDE project introduced

10800-409: The zone of stability. The time required to lose half of a quantity of a given nuclide through radioactive decays, the half-life , is a measure of how stable an isotope is. Nuclides can be visually represented on a table ( Segré chart or table of nuclides) where the proton number is plotted against the neutron number. In 1950, two Danish physicists Otto Kofoed-Hansen and Karl-Ove Nielsen discovered

10908-535: Was accepted by the CERN Director-General and the ISOLDE project began. The "Finance Committee" for the project set up originally with five members, then extended to twelve to include two members per 'country' (including CERN). As the term "Finance Committee" had other connotations, it was decided 'until a better name was found' to call the project ISOLDE and the committee the ISOLDE Committee. In 1965, as

11016-485: Was achieved in 2020. The Linac4 is a 160 MeV linear accelerator and delivers H beams with twice the beam brightness compared to its older counterparts. LIU also upgraded the cesiated radiofrequency-plasma H ion source that feeds Linac4. The challenge here was to have a high current, low emittance source beam. Heavy-ion injector upgrades through the upgrades to the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) and Linac3 are also being designed. The source extraction system of Linac3

11124-427: Was approved in 1995 and inaugurated at the facility in 2001. With this new addition, nuclear reaction experiments which require a high-energy RIB could now be performed at ISOLDE. Additionally, REXTRAP operates as a Penning Trap for the REX-ISOLDE then transfers bunches of ions to REXEBIS, an E lectron B eam I on S ource (EBIS), which traps the isotopes produced and further ionises them. The facility building

11232-426: Was devoted to the construction of the PSB, which started one year later, in 1968. The first proton beams in the PSB were accelerated on May 1 in 1972, and the nominal energy of 800 MeV was reached on May 26. In October 1973, the intermediate intensity goal of 5.2 × {\displaystyle \times } 10 protons per pulse delivered to the PS was reached. In total, it took around two years to achieve

11340-476: Was extended in 2005 to allow more experiments to be set up. ISCOOL, an ion cooler and buncher, increasing the beam quality for experiments was installed at the facility in 2007. In 2006, the International Advisory Board decided that upgrading ISOLDE hall with a linear post-accelerator design based on superconducting quarter-wave resonators would allow for a full-energy availability, crucially without

11448-459: Was launched in 1974. Its new target design combined with the increased beam intensity from the SC led to significant enhancements in the number of nuclides produced. However, after some time the external beam current from the SC started to be a limiting factor. The collaboration discussed the possibility of moving the facility to an accelerator that could reach higher current values but decided on building another separator with ultra-modern design, for

11556-474: Was made at ISOLDE in 1979, using the isotope lithium-11. Beta-delayed emission occurs for isotopes further away from the line of stability, and involves particle emission after beta decay. Newer studies have been proposed to investigate beta-delayed multi-particle emission of lithium-11 using the IDS. High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider The High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider ( HL-LHC ; formerly referred to as HiLumi LHC , Super LHC , and SLHC )

11664-572: Was re-designed, and by the end of LS2 it successfully increased the extracted source beam intensity by 20%. To handle the increased luminosity, number of simultaneous particle interactions, massive amount of data, and radiation of the HL-LHC environment, the detectors will be upgraded. ALICE: The upgrade will increase the lifetime of the Tile Calorimeter (TileCal), which is a hadronic calorimeter sensitive to charged particles, by 20 years. The beam pipe at ALICE will also be replaced by one with

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