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47-686: Proleek Dolmen is a dolmen (portal tomb) and National Monument located in County Louth , Ireland . Proleek Dolmen is 4.3 km (2.7 mi) northeast of Dundalk , on the west bank of the Ballymascanlan River . The dolmen dates to the Neolithic , around 3000 BC. It was used for interments in which the cremated remains were placed in the tomb, often accompanied by grave goods , including tools , beads and pottery . The tomb may be aligned so that its portal points toward Slieve Gullion and/or

94-615: A Breton language term meaning ' stone table ' but doubt has been cast on this, and the OED describes its origin as "Modern French". A book on Cornish antiquities from 1754 said that the current term in the Cornish language for a cromlech was tolmen ('hole of stone') and the OED says that "There is reason to think that this was the term inexactly reproduced by Latour d'Auvergne [sic] as dolmen , and misapplied by him and succeeding French archaeologists to

141-634: A number of ways, including compounding , affixation, reduplication or conversion from another part of speech. Roughly equivalent to the infinitive, or to a so-called "verbal noun," the Masdar form of the verb resembles the English gerund. It is formed by the addition of a specific suffix to a bare verb stem, -ра ( -ra ) for a dynamic verb and -заара ( -zaara ) for a stative. аԥхьара á-px’a-ra ART -read- MSD аԥхьара á-px’a-ra ART-read-MSD "to read/be reading" Various prefixes can be added to

188-648: A second part such as de l'alarb ('of the Arab'), del/de moro/s ('of the Moor/s'), del lladre ('of the thief'), del dimoni ('of the devil'), d'en Rotllà/Rotllan/Rotlan/Roldan ('of Roland '),. In the Basque Country , they are attributed to the jentilak , a race of giants. The etymology of the German : Hünenbett, Hünengrab and Dutch : hunebed – with Hüne / hune meaning 'giant' – all evoke

235-471: A variety of names in other languages, including Galician and Portuguese : anta , Bulgarian : Долмени , romanized :  Dolmeni , German : Hünengrab/Hünenbett , Afrikaans and Dutch : hunebed , Basque : trikuharri , Abkhaz : Adamra , Adyghe : Ispun Danish and Norwegian : dysse , Swedish : dös , Korean : 고인돌 , romanized :  goindol (go-in = 'propped' + dol = 'stone') , and Hebrew : גַלעֵד . Granja

282-809: A visitor lands three stones atop the dolmen, they will be granted a wish, or will be married within the year. Proleek dolmen is composed of two portal stones, a lower backstone and a massive capstone, which weighs about 40 tonnes. The portal faces northwest. 90 metres (100 yd) to the SE is a Wedge-shaped gallery grave ("Giant's Grave") with a 6.7 m (22 ft) gallery. Dolmen In Sumba (Indonesia), dolmens are still commonly built (about 100 dolmens each year) for collective graves according to lineage. The traditional village of Wainyapu has some 1,400 dolmens. The word dolmen entered archaeology when Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne used it to describe megalithic tombs in his Origines gauloises (1796) using

329-549: Is a Northwest Caucasian language most closely related to Abaza . It is spoken mostly by the Abkhaz people . It is one of the official languages of Abkhazia , where around 190,000 people speak it. Furthermore, it is spoken by thousands of members of the Abkhazian diaspora in Turkey , Georgia 's autonomous republic of Adjara , Syria , Jordan , and several Western countries. 27 October is

376-548: Is also spoken as a minority language around the world. There is a considerable number of Abkhaz speakers in Adjara in southern Georgia, with the diaspora concentrating itself around the capital Batumi , with about 982 people considering Abkhaz their first language. In the Russian census of 2010, 6,786 speakers of Abkhaz were reported in Russia . In Ukraine there are around 1,458 according to

423-467: Is an agglutinative language that relies heavily on affixation. It has an ergative-absolutive typology, such that the subject of an intransitive verb functions identically to the object of a transitive verb. Notably, Abkhaz expresses ergativity entirely through the ordering of subjects and objects within verb constructions rather than through overt case marking as most other ergative languages do. All Latin transliterations in this section utilize

470-419: Is highly regular. Abkhaz, being an ergative language, makes a strong distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs, as well as dynamic and stative . Stative verbs describe states of being, roughly analogous to copular phrases in English, as in дхәыҷуп ( d-x˚əčә́-wə-p - "she is a child"). Dynamic verbs express direct actions, functioning more closely to standard English verbs. Dynamic verbs possess

517-584: Is not clear. The Turkish census denotes 13,951, but the figures are dubious, since the numbers of Abkhazians that came from the beginning of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th have been documented at around 30 thousand. Ethnologue gives 150,000 Abkhazians living in Turkey, of these 50,000 still speak the language. The head of the Abkhaz federation says there are in between 500 and 700 thousand Abkhazians in Turkey. In general, Abkhaz seems to have been lost by most of

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564-541: Is used in Portugal , Galicia , and some parts of Spain . The rarer forms anta and ganda also appear. In Catalan-speaking areas , they are known simply as dolmen , but also by a variety of folk names, including cova ('cave'), caixa ('crate' or 'coffin'), taula ('table'), arca ('chest'), cabana ('hut'), barraca ('hut'), llosa ('slab'), llosa de jaça ('pallet slab'), roca ('rock') or pedra ('stone'), usually combined with

611-432: Is usually represented as [ɨ] if the vowel is in a stressed position, and being unaffected by its neighbouring consonants. Other linguists however, mainly Russian ones, describe the vowels differently. They describe the sound of 'ә' being completely different from [ɨ], and by their descriptions being closer to [ə]. The 'а' is described as being particularly back, likely [ɑ]. Typical of Northwest Caucasian languages, Abkhaz

658-625: The Golan Heights , Jordan , Lebanon , Syria , and southeast Turkey . Dolmens in the Levant belong to a different, unrelated tradition to that of Europe, although they are often treated "as part of a trans-regional phenomenon that spanned the Taurus Mountains to the Arabian Peninsula ." In the Levant, they are of Early Bronze rather than Late Neolithic age. They are mostly found along

705-552: The cromlech ". Nonetheless it has now replaced cromlech as the usual English term in archaeology, when the more technical and descriptive alternatives are not used. The later Cornish term was quoit – an English-language word for an object with a hole through the middle preserving the original Cornish language term of tolmen – the name of another dolmen-like monument is in fact Mên-an-Tol 'stone with hole' (Standard Written Form: Men An Toll .) In Irish Gaelic , dolmens are called Irish : dolmain . Dolmens are known by

752-691: The 2001 census, but of these only 317 speak Abkhazian. There were also communities in Syria , Jordan and Iraq with around 5,000 Abkhazians, although this number could reach 10,000 according to the Abkhazia's Foreign Ministry. The biggest western diaspora is in Germany , with around 5,000 speakers, but other communities are found in countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Austria, France, Belgium and so on. The earliest indisputable extant written records of

799-464: The 4 kinds of labialisation described by Chirikba. Affricate The nature of the vowels of Abkhaz is not clear. Some linguists, characterise the vowel system as a 2 degree vertical vowel system ; with the two vowels being distinguished by height, 'ә' being the high/close vowel, and 'а' being the low/open. This system would very closely resemble the one found in Adyghe . The quality of 'ә' in this case,

846-627: The Abkhaz language are in the Arabic script , recorded by the Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century. Abkhaz has been used as a literary language for only about 100 years. It was suggested that certain inscriptions on Ancient Greek pottery which had been considered nonsense are in fact written in Abkhaz-Adydge languages. The methodology of the research was criticised and the results called improbable. In 1918, Tbilisi State University became

893-677: The Bronze Age to the early Iron Age, with about 40,000 to be found throughout the peninsula. In 2000, the dolmen groups of Jukrim-ri and Dosan-ri in Gochang , Hyosan-ri and Daesin-ri in Hwasun , and Bujeong-ri, Samgeori and Osang-ri in Ganghwa gained World Cultural Heritage status. (See Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites .) They are mainly distributed along the West Sea coastal area and on large rivers from

940-571: The Jordan Rift Valley's eastern escarpment, and in the hills of the Galilee, in clusters near Early Bronze I proto-urban settlements (3700–3000 BCE), additionally restricted by geology to areas allowing the quarrying of slabs of megalithic size. In the Levant, geological constraints led to a local burial tradition with a variety of tomb forms, dolmens being one of them. Dolmens were built in Korea from

987-818: The Liaoning region of China (the Liaodong Peninsula ) to Jeollanam-do . In North Korea, they are concentrated around the Taedong and Jaeryeong Rivers . In South Korea, they are found in dense concentrations in river basins, such as the Han and Nakdong Rivers , and in the west coast area ( Boryeong in South Chungcheong Province, Buan in North Jeolla Province, and Jeollanam-do. They are mainly found on sedimentary plains, where they are grouped in rows parallel to

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1034-468: The Masdar to form entire dependent clauses, as in аԥибаҽра a-pә́-j+ba-č-ra ART - PREV - RECI -break- MSD аԥибаҽра a-pә́-j+ba-č-ra ART-PREV-RECI-break-MSD "breaking each other" However, the fully conjugated personal Abkhaz verb forms are "templatic," with each grammatical distinction occupying a specific "slot" or "position" within the broader verb template. Verbs are thus formed by

1081-644: The Sakarya province, it being spoken in 14 villages. The other major place where Abkhaz is spoken is in Karachay-Cherkessia , where the Northern dialects are spoken, although there they are considered as a separate language and form the literary Abaza language . They are spoken by 37,831 people in Russia, mostly in the south of Stavropol Krai in the area around Kislovodsk , and in the upper Kuma river area. Abkhaz

1128-431: The absence of clear evidence for this. Human remains, sometimes accompanied by artefacts, have been found in or close to the dolmens which could be scientifically dated using radiocarbon dating . However, it has been impossible to prove that these remains date from the time when the stones were originally set in place. Early in the 20th century, before the advent of scientific dating, it was proposed by Harold Peake that

1175-522: The addition of various affixes to the verb stem; these affixes express such distinctions as transitivity, person and stative/dynamic quality, occupying rigid positions within the overall verb structure. There is a high degree of agreement between verbs and other parts of speech. Overall, the Abkhaz verb is constructed as follows: Not all of these elements will necessarily co-occur in every verb. The individual parts of verb morphology are addressed below. First Position The first prefixing element of

1222-488: The closest relative to Abkhaz, with it only later on being influenced by Circassian. There is not an agreed number of speakers of Abkhaz, and there are widely different numbers. It is agreed that today most of the Abkhaz people do not live in Abkhazia. In the census conducted by the Republic of Abkhazia in 2011, Abkhazians comprised 50.8% of the population, around 122,175 people; of these 92,838 speaking it natively. Only two of

1269-456: The day of the Abkhazian language in Georgia . Abkhaz is a Northwest Caucasian language and is thus related to Adyghe . The language of Abkhaz is especially close to Abaza , and they are sometimes considered dialects of the same language, Abazgi , of which the literary dialects of Abkhaz and Abaza are simply two ends of a dialect continuum . Grammatically, the two are very similar; however,

1316-488: The descendants, and bilingualism being low except in some specific areas, although there seems to be an effort for the new generation to learn the language with public schools being able to teach Abkhaz and together with 7,836 second language speakers. Abkhazian villages are concentrated around the cities of Adapazarı , Düzce , Sinop , Hendek and Samsun in the northern part, and in the west around cities such as Bilecik , Inegöl and Eskişehir ; they are mainly found in

1363-488: The differences in phonology are substantial, it also contains elements characteristic of Kabardian ; these are the main reasons for many others to prefer keeping the two separate, while others still refer to it as the Tapanta dialect of Abkhaz. Chirikba mentions that there are possible indications that proto-Northwest Caucasian , could have divided firstly into proto-Circassian and to proto-Ubykh-Abkhaz; Ubykh then being

1410-475: The direction of the river or stream. Those found in hilly areas are grouped in the direction of the hill. Also called Muniyaras, these dolmens belong to the Iron Age . These dolmenoids were burial chambers made of four stones placed on edge and covered by a fifth stone called the cap stone. Some of these Dolmenoids contain several burial chambers, while others have a quadrangle scooped out in laterite and lined on

1457-561: The dolmens of western Europe were evidence of cultural diffusion from the eastern Mediterranean. This "prospector theory" surmised that Aegean-origin prospectors had moved westward in search of metal ores, starting before 2200 BCE, and had taken the concept of megalithic architecture with them. Dolmens can be found in the Levant , some along the Jordan Rift Valley ( Upper Galilee in Israel ,

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1504-479: The first institution of higher education to teach Abkhazian language. The founders of the university began to take care of the development and scientific study of the Abkhazian language. At the meeting of the Council of Professors held at Tbilisi State University in 1918, Ivane Javakhishvili noted the scientific importance of studying Caucasian languages. In 1918, by the decision of the Council of Professors, Petre Charaia

1551-479: The full range of aspect , mood and tense forms, in contrast to statives, which do not. Some verbs, called inversives, combine certain features of both stative and dynamic verbs. Another important verbal distinction in Abkhaz is finite versus non-finite, referring to the duration of the action . Finite verbs usually contain enough information to form a complete sentence, whereas non-finite verbs typically form dependent clauses . Verb stems can be derived in

1598-653: The image of giants buried ( bett / bed / grab = 'bed/grave') there. Of other Celtic languages , Welsh cromlech was borrowed into English and quoit is commonly used in English in Cornwall . It remains unclear when, why and by whom the earliest dolmens were made. The oldest known are found in Western Europe , dating from c. 7,000 years ago. Archaeologists still do not know who erected these dolmens, which makes it difficult to know why they did it. They are generally all regarded as tombs or burial chambers, despite

1645-562: The language has only two phonemically distinct vowels, which have several allophones depending on the palatal and/or labial quality of adjacent consonants. Labialised alveolo-palatal fricatives are found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa. Plain alveolo-palatal consonants and the pharyngealised and labialised-pharyngealised uvular fricatives are unique to the Bzyp dialect. The consonants highlighted in red and in brackets are

1692-462: The left side of river Pambar as is evident from the usage of neatly dressed granite slabs for the dolmens. At least one of them has a perfectly circular hole of 28 cm diameter inside the underground chamber. This region has several types of dolmens. Large number of them are overground with about 70–90 cm height. Another type has a height 140–170 cm. There is an overground dolmen with double length up to 350 cm. Fragments of burial urns are also available in

1739-462: The most preserved lexicon, with few borrowings. Abzhywa has adopted many loans from Kartvelian , specially Mingrelian ; Sadz on the other hand has more words from Circassian . Northern dialects in general have more loanwords from Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Circassian. Abkhaz has a very large number of consonants (58 in the literary dialect), with three-way voiced / voiceless / ejective and palatalized / labialized /plain distinctions. By contrast,

1786-527: The original dialects are still spoken in Abkhazia. The Bzyp dialect is still spoken in its homeland northwest of Sukhumi , stretching from the Bzyp River to the western environs of Sukhumi and the Psyrtskha valley, whereas the Abzhywa dialect is spoken south-east of Sukhumi. The rest of the Abkhaz speaking population inhabits other neighbouring areas. The exact number of Abkhazians and Abkhaz speakers in Turkey

1833-513: The provinces of Sakarya and Bolu in the western part, and near the Çoruh river in the north-east. Historically the dialects of Sadz, Ahchypsy and Tsabal were located in Abkhazia; Sadz being spoken from the Bzyp river to the Matsesta River , and further to the north-west bordering the Sochypsta River . Today they are exclusively spoken in the northwestern part of Turkey, specially in

1880-440: The region near the dolmens. This indicates that the dolmens with 70–90 cm height were used for burial of the remains of people of high social status. Burial urns were used for the burial of the remains of commoners. The dolmens with raised roofs might have been used for habitation of people. Why some people lived in the cemeteries has not been satisfactorily explained. Abkhaz language Abkhaz , also known as Abkhazian ,

1927-469: The setting sun at the summer solstice . Local legend claims that the dolmen was carried here by the Scottish giant Para Buidhe Mór Mhac Seoidin (or Parrah Boug MacShagean; "Great Yellow Para, son of Seoidín"). Para challenged Fionn mac Cumhaill to combat, but Fionn poisoned the nearby river and Para drank from it. The Scottish giant was buried at the wedge tomb nearby. Another local tradition claims that if

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1974-503: The sides with granite slabs. These are also covered with cap stones. Dozens of Dolmens around the area of old Siva temple (Thenkasinathan Temple) at Kovilkadavu on the banks of the River Pambar and also around the area called Pius nagar, and rock paintings on the south-western slope of the plateau overlooking the river have attracted visitors. Apart from the dolmens of Stone Age, several dolmens of Iron Age exist in this region especially on

2021-468: The spelling dolmin (the current spelling was introduced about a decade later and had become standard in French by about 1885). The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED ) does not mention dolmin in English and gives its first citation for dolmen from a book on Brittany in 1859, describing the word as "The French term, used by some English authors, for a cromlech ...". The name was supposedly derived from

2068-428: The standard Abzhywa dialect. The only dialects spoken in Abkhazia are Abzhywa and Bzyp. Northern dialects which are the basis for literary Abaza are spoken in Karachay-Cherkessia , while the other dialects such as Sadz are spoken in Turkey due to Russian invasions in the 19th century. While most differences are phonetic, differences in the lexicon are present, although mostly due to exterior contact. Bzyp contains

2115-516: The system explicated in Chirikba (2003) (see Abkhaz alphabet for the details). DETR:detrimental BENF:benefactive PREV:preverb SPREV:stem preverb EXT:extension MSD:masdar Abkhaz morphology features a highly complex verb system that could be called a "sentence in miniature." Chirikba (2003) describes Abkhaz as a "verbocentric" language wherein verbs occupy the "central part of the morphology." However, despite its complexity, Abkhaz verbal morphology

2162-451: The verb complex expresses either the subject of an intransitive verb in the absolutive construction, or the direct object of a transitive verb in an ergative construction. The following table illustrates the various agreement markers which can occupy the first position. These prefixes can either be in their long forms, containing the letters inside the parenthesis, or in the short forms that do not contain them. The rules for using them are

2209-402: Was invited to teach the Abkhazian language, and from 1925, this mission was continued by Dimitri Gulia and Simon Janashia . Abkhaz is generally viewed as having three major dialects: The literary language is based on the Abzhywa dialect. Below is a classification of Abkhaz dialects according to Chirikba (1996): In some form or the other, all dialects are richer in phonemes than

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