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68-504: Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis (1824–1873), also known by its standard botanical abbreviation Prodr. (DC.) , is a 17-volume treatise on botany initiated by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle . De Candolle intended it as a summary of all known seed plants, encompassing taxonomy , ecology , evolution and biogeography . He authored seven volumes between 1824 and 1839, but died in 1841. His son, Alphonse de Candolle , then took up

136-457: A family is indicated as "ordo". Terminations for families were not what they are now. Neither of these phenomena is a problem from a nomenclatural perspective, the present day ICN provides for this. Within the dicotyledons ("classis prima DICOTYLEDONEÆ") the De Candolle system recognises (Pagination from Prodromus , 17 Parts) the list: (Index to Part I p. 741) Somewhat inconsistently

204-456: A herbarium . Within a couple of years de Candolle had established a new genus, and he went on to document hundreds of plant families and create a new natural plant classification system. Although de Candolle's main focus was botany, he also contributed to related fields such as phytogeography , agronomy , paleontology , medical botany, and economic botany . De Candolle originated the idea of "Nature's war", which influenced Charles Darwin and

272-486: A CT and MRI scan, and were astonished to see "massive enlargement" of the lateral ventricles in the skull. Dr. Lionel Feuillet of Hôpital de la Timone in Marseille said, "The images were most unusual... the brain was virtually absent." Intelligence tests showed the person had an IQ of 75, considered " Borderline intellectual functioning ", just above what would be officially classified as intellectually disabled. The person

340-528: A book was written in French about his life and one of his greatest contributions, the Botanical Garden of Geneva . He is remembered in the plant genera Candollea and Candolleodendron , several plant species like Eugenia candolleana or Diospyros candolleana and the mushroom Psathyrella candolleana . Candollea , a scientific journal that publishes papers on systematic botany and phylotaxonomy,

408-590: A century later demonstrated that "the internal biological clock" indeed exists. De Candolle's descendants continued his work on plant classification; son Alphonse and grandson Casimir de Candolle contributed to the Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis , a catalog of plants begun by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle. Augustin Pyramus de Candolle was born on 4 February 1778 in Geneva , Republic of Geneva , to Augustin de Candolle,

476-528: A change in personality, weakness in the arms or legs, strabismus , and double vision to appear when the person is vertical. If the person lies down, the symptoms usually vanish quickly. A CT scan may or may not show any change in ventricle size, particularly if the person has a history of slit-like ventricles. Difficulty in diagnosing over-drainage can make treatment of this complication particularly frustrating for people and their families. Resistance to traditional analgesic pharmacological therapy may also be

544-939: A close acquaintance of the Portuguese polymath, José Correia da Serra , who was Portuguese ambassador to Paris and who circulated in an international network of thinkers ranging from the Briton Joseph Banks to the Americans Thomas Jefferson and William Bartram , and the French scholars Antoine Laurent de Jussieu and Georges Cuvier . Correia's endorsement of the idea of emphasizing similarity and symmetry in classifying plants influenced de Candolle, who acknowledged as much in his writing. While in Montpellier , de Candolle published his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique (Elementary Theory of Botany, 1813), which introduced

612-487: A constant feature of kleeblattschadel and frequently seen in syndomic cases (mostly in Crouzon syndrome ). Hydrocephalus has also been seen in cases of congenital syphilis . In newborns and toddlers with hydrocephalus, the head circumference is enlarged rapidly and soon surpasses the 97th percentile. Since the skull bones have not yet firmly joined, bulging, firm anterior and posterior fontanelles may be present even when

680-488: A decrease in Perilymphatic pressure and cause secondary endolymphatic hydrops. In addition to the increased hearing loss, there have also been findings of resolved hearing loss after ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement, where there is a release of CSF pressure on the auditory pathways. The diagnosis of CSF buildup is complex and requires specialist expertise. Diagnosis of the particular complication usually depends on when

748-647: A former official, and his wife, Louise Eléonore Brière. His family descended from one of the ancient families of Provence in France, but relocated to Geneva at the end of the 16th century to escape religious persecution. At age seven de Candolle contracted a severe case of hydrocephalus , which significantly affected his childhood. Nevertheless, he is said to have had great aptitude for learning, distinguishing himself in school with his rapid acquisition of knowledge in classical and general literature and his ability to write fine poetry. In 1794, he began his scientific studies at

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816-498: A free-running period of leaf opening and closing of approximately 22–23 hours in constant light, significantly less than the approximate 24-hour period of the Earth's light-dark cycles. Since the period was shorter than 24 hours, he hypothesized that a different clock had to be responsible for the rhythm; the shortened period was not entrained—coordinated—by environmental cues, thus the clock appeared to be endogenous. Despite these findings,

884-414: A good medical history can help to differentiate external hydrocephalus from subdural hemorrhages or symptomatic chronic extra-axial fluid collections which are accompanied by vomiting, headaches, and seizures. Examples of possible complications include shunt malfunction, shunt failure, and shunt infection, along with infection of the shunt tract following surgery (the most common reason for shunt failure

952-541: A new classification system and the word taxonomy . Candolle moved back to Geneva in 1816 and in the following year was invited by the government of the Canton of Geneva to fill the newly created chair of natural history. De Candolle spent the rest of his life in an attempt to elaborate and complete his natural system of botanical classification. de Candolle published initial work in his Regni vegetabillis systema naturale , but after two volumes he realized he could not complete

1020-399: A newborn baby is often full of liquid, either because the matron has compressed it excessively or for other, unknown reasons. The volume of the skull then increases daily, so that the bones of the skull fail to close. In this case, we must open the middle of the skull in three places, make the liquid flow out, then close the wound and tighten the skull with a bandage. In 1881, a few years after

1088-449: A number of scientists continued to search for "factor X", an unknown exogenous factor associated with the Earth's rotation that was driving circadian oscillations in the absence of a light dark schedule, until the mid-twentieth century. In the mid-1920s, Erwin Bunning repeated Candolle's findings and came to similar conclusions, and studies that showed the persistence of circadian rhythm in

1156-473: A second edition in 1795. The third edition, which bears the name of both Lamarck and de Candolle, was in reality the work of the latter, the former having only lent his name and access to his collection. In 1804, de Candolle published his Essai sur les propriétés médicales des plantes and was granted a doctor of medicine degree by the medical faculty of Paris. Two years later, he published Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum . de Candolle then spent

1224-402: A sign of shunt overdrainage or failure. Following placement of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt there have been cases of a decrease in post-surgery hearing. It is presumed that the cochlea aqueduct is responsible for the decrease in hearing thresholds. The cochlea aqueduct has been considered as a probable channel where CSF pressure can be transmitted. Therefore, the reduced CSF pressure could cause

1292-405: Is a relatively typical manifestation of the distinct entity normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Focal neurological deficits may also occur, such as abducens nerve palsy and vertical gaze palsy ( Parinaud syndrome due to compression of the quadrigeminal plate , where the neural centers coordinating the conjugated vertical eye movement are located). The symptoms depend on the cause of the blockage,

1360-599: Is caused by impaired CSF reabsorption in the absence of any obstruction of CSF flow between the ventricles and subarachnoid space. This may be due to functional impairment of the arachnoidal granulations (also called arachnoid granulations or Pacchioni's granulations ), which are located along the superior sagittal sinus , and is the site of CSF reabsorption back into the venous system. Various neurologic conditions may result in communicating hydrocephalus, including subarachnoid/intraventricular hemorrhage, meningitis, and congenital absence of arachnoid villi. Scarring and fibrosis of

1428-468: Is infection of the shunt tract). Although a shunt generally works well, it may stop working if it disconnects, becomes blocked (clogged) or infected, or it is outgrown. If this happens, the CSF begins to accumulate again and a number of physical symptoms develop (headaches, nausea, vomiting, photophobia /light sensitivity), some extremely serious, such as seizures . The shunt failure rate is also relatively high (of

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1496-611: Is present in the infant prior to birth, meaning the fetus developed hydrocephalus in utero during fetal development . The most common cause of congenital hydrocephalus is aqueductal stenosis, which occurs when the narrow passage between the third and fourth ventricles in the brain is blocked or too narrow to allow sufficient cerebral spinal fluid to drain. Fluid accumulates in the upper ventricles, causing hydrocephalus. Other causes of congenital hydrocephalus include neural-tube defects, arachnoid cysts , Dandy–Walker syndrome , and Arnold–Chiari malformation . The cranial bones fuse by

1564-542: Is sometimes combined with choroid plexus cauterization, which reduces the amount of cerebrospinal fluid produced by the brain. The technique, known as ETV/CPC, was pioneered in Uganda by neurosurgeon Benjamin Warf and is now in use in several U.S. hospitals. Hydrocephalus can be successfully treated by placing a drainage tube (shunt) between the brain ventricles and abdominal cavity. Some risk exists of infection being introduced into

1632-418: Is thought to reflect the distribution of nerve damage to the brain. Hydrocephalus that is present from birth can cause long-term complications with speech and language. Children can have issues such as nonverbal learning disorder, difficulty understanding complex and abstract concepts, difficulty retrieving stored information, and spatial/perceptual disorders. Children with hydrocephalus are often known in having

1700-574: Is typically made by physical examination and medical imaging . Hydrocephalus is typically treated by the surgical placement of a shunt system . A procedure called a third ventriculostomy is an option in some people. Complications from shunts may include overdrainage, underdrainage, mechanical failure, infection , or obstruction. This may require replacement. Outcomes are variable, but many people with shunts live normal lives. Without treatment, permanent disability or death may occur. About one to two per 1,000 newborns have hydrocephalus. Rates in

1768-406: Is usually painful. The cause of hydrocephalus is not known with certainty and is probably multifactorial. It may be caused by impaired CSF flow, reabsorption, or excessive CSF production. Hydrocephalus can be classified into communicating and noncommunicating (obstructive). Both forms can be either congenital or acquired. Communicating hydrocephalus, also known as nonobstructive hydrocephalus,

1836-593: The Collège de France in 1802. Lamarck entrusted him with the publication of the third edition of the Flore française (1805–1815), and in the introduction entitled Principes élémentaires de botanique , de Candolle proposed a natural method of plant classification as opposed to the artificial Linnaean method. The premise of de Candolle's method is that taxa do not fall along a linear scale; they are discrete, not continuous. Lamarck had originally published this work in 1778, with

1904-589: The Collège de Genève , where he studied under Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher , who later inspired de Candolle to make botanical science the chief pursuit of his life. He spent four years at the Geneva Academy, studying science and law according to his father's wishes. In 1798, he moved to Paris after Geneva had been annexed to the French Republic. His botanical career formally began with the help of René Louiche Desfontaines , who recommended de Candolle for work in

1972-505: The One Small Voice Foundation , promote awareness and fundraising activities. One case of hydrocephalus was a man whose brain shrank to a thin sheet of tissue, due to a buildup of cerebrospinal fluid in his skull. As a child, the man had a shunt, but it was removed when he was 14. In July 2007, at age 44, he went to a hospital due to mild weakness in his left leg. When doctors learned of the man's medical history, they performed

2040-508: The Prodromus also treats: (Overall Index Part XVII Page 323) History of botany Augustin Pyramus de Candolle Augustin Pyramus (or Pyrame ) de Candolle ( UK : / k æ n ˈ d ɒ l / , US : / k ɒ̃ ˈ d ɔː l / , French: [kɑ̃dɔl] ; 4 February 1778 – 9 September 1841) was a Swiss botanist . René Louiche Desfontaines launched de Candolle's botanical career by recommending him at

2108-472: The Prodromus through his detailed, extensive research and characterization of the plant family Piperaceae . Augustin de Candolle's great-grandson, Richard Émile Augustin de Candolle , was also a botanist. Augustin de Candolle died on 9 September 1841 in Geneva , after being sick for many years. That same year, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society . In 2017,

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2176-468: The University of Edinburgh , and in the inception of Darwin's theory in 1838 he considered "the warring of the species", adding that it was even more strongly conveyed by Thomas Malthus , producing the pressures that Darwin later called natural selection . In 1839, de Candolle visited Britain and Darwin invited him to dinner, allowing the two scientists the opportunity to discuss the idea. De Candolle

2244-498: The developing world may be higher. Normal pressure hydrocephalus is estimated to affect about 5 per 100,000 people, with rates increasing with age. Description of hydrocephalus by Hippocrates dates back more than 2,000 years. The word hydrocephalus is from the Greek ὕδωρ , hydōr , meaning 'water' and κεφαλή , kephalē , meaning 'head'. The clinical presentation of hydrocephalus varies with chronicity . Acute dilatation of

2312-564: The developing world while North America has the fewest number of cases. A systematic review in 2019 estimated that there are 180,000 childhood hydrocephalus cases from the African continent per year, followed by 90,000 cases from Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. Latin America also has a high prevalence of hydrocephalus. However, data on hydrocephalus disease burden in adults are lacking. In

2380-499: The herbarium of Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle during the summer of 1798. The position elevated de Candolle's reputation and also led to valuable instruction from Desfontaines himself. de Candolle established his first genus, Senebiera , in 1799. De Candolle's first books, Plantarum historia succulentarum (4 vols., 1799) and Astragalogia (1802), brought him to the notice of Georges Cuvier and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck . de Candolle, with Cuvier's approval, acted as deputy at

2448-515: The ventricular system is more likely to manifest with the nonspecific signs and symptoms of increased intracranial pressure (ICP). By contrast, chronic dilatation (especially in the elderly population) may have a more insidious onset presenting, for instance, with Hakim's triad (Adams' triad). Symptoms of increased ICP may include headaches , vomiting , nausea , papilledema , sleepiness , or coma . With increased levels of CSF, there have been cases of hearing loss due to CSF creating pressure on

2516-501: The 40,000 surgeries performed annually to treat hydrocephalus, only 30% are a person's first surgery) and people not uncommonly have multiple shunt revisions within their lifetimes. Another complication can occur when CSF drains more rapidly than it is produced by the choroid plexus , causing symptoms of listlessness, severe headaches, irritability, light sensitivity, auditory hyperesthesia (sound sensitivity), hearing loss, nausea, vomiting, dizziness , vertigo , migraines , seizures,

2584-465: The Perilymphatic space of the inner ear with the subarachnoid space of the posterior cranial fossa. A loss of CSF pressure can induce Perilymphatic loss or endolymphatic hydrops resembling the clinical presentation of Ménière's disease associated hearing loss in the low frequencies. CSF can accumulate within the ventricles, this condition is called internal hydrocephalus and may result in increased CSF pressure. The production of CSF continues, even when

2652-638: The South Pole and in a space lab further confirmed the existence of oscillations in the absence of environmental cues. Hydrocephalus Hydrocephalus can occur due to birth defects or be acquired later in life. Associated birth defects include neural tube defects and those that result in aqueductal stenosis . Other causes include meningitis , brain tumors , traumatic brain injury , intraventricular hemorrhage , and subarachnoid hemorrhage . The four types of hydrocephalus are communicating, noncommunicating, ex vacuo , and normal pressure . Diagnosis

2720-496: The arms may become tremulous . Papilledema is absent, but vision may be reduced. The head becomes so enlarged that they eventually may be bedridden. About 80–90% of fetuses or newborn infants with spina bifida —often associated with meningocele or myelomeningocele —develop hydrocephalus. This condition is acquired as a consequence of CNS infections , meningitis , brain tumors , head trauma , toxoplasmosis , or intracranial hemorrhage (subarachnoid or intraparenchymal), and

2788-524: The auditory pathways or disrupting the communication of inner ear fluid. Elevated ICP of different etiologies have been linked to sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). Transient SNHL has been reported after the loss of CSF with shunt surgeries. Hearing loss is a rare but well-known sequela of procedures resulting in CSF loss. Elevated ICP may result in uncal or tonsillar herniation , with resulting life-threatening brain stem compression. Hakim's triad of gait instability, urinary incontinence , and dementia

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2856-405: The brain through these shunts, as they must be replaced as the person grows. External hydrocephalus is a condition generally seen in infants which involves enlarged fluid spaces or subarachnoid spaces around the outside of the brain. This condition is generally benign , and resolves spontaneously by two years of age and therefore usually does not require insertion of a shunt. Imaging studies and

2924-531: The brain", a historical name, and "water baby syndrome". September was designated National Hydrocephalus Awareness Month in July 2009 by the U.S. Congress in H.Res. 373 . The resolution campaign is due in part to the advocacy work of the Pediatric Hydrocephalus Foundation. Prior to July 2009, no awareness month for this condition had been designated. Many hydrocephalus organizations, such as

2992-574: The brain, its ventricles and the spinal cord and is continuously drained away into the circulatory system. Alternatively, the condition may result from an overproduction of the CSF, from a congenital malformation blocking normal drainage of the fluid, or from complications of head injuries or infections. Compression of the brain by the accumulating fluid eventually may cause neurological symptoms such as convulsions , intellectual disability , and epileptic seizures . These signs occur sooner in adults, whose skulls are no longer able to expand to accommodate

3060-497: The difficulty in understanding the concepts within conversation and tend to use words they know or have heard. However, the severity of hydrocephalus can differ considerably between individuals, and some are of average or above-average intelligence. Someone with hydrocephalus may have coordination and visual problems, or clumsiness. They may reach puberty earlier than the average child (this is called precocious puberty ). About one in four develops epilepsy . Congenital hydrocephalus

3128-403: The discovery of an evolutionary relationship, de Candolle introduced the concept of homology . De Candolle also made contributions to the field of chronobiology . Building upon earlier work on plant circadian leaf movements contributed by such scientists as Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan and Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau , de Candolle observed in 1832 that the plant Mimosa pudica had

3196-461: The end of the third year of life. For head enlargement to occur, hydrocephalus must occur before then. The causes are usually genetic, but can also be acquired and usually occur within the first few months of life, which include intraventricular matrix hemorrhages in premature infants , infections, type II Arnold-Chiari malformation, aqueduct atresia and stenosis, and Dandy-Walker malformation. Hydrocephalus can also occur with craniosynostosis , being

3264-402: The increasing fluid volume within. Fetuses, infants, and young children with hydrocephalus typically have an abnormally large head, excluding the face, because the pressure of the fluid causes the individual skull bones—which have yet to fuse—to bulge outward at their juncture points . Another medical sign , in infants, is a characteristic fixed downward gaze with whites of the eyes showing above

3332-452: The iris, as though the infant were trying to examine its own lower eyelids. The elevated ICP may cause compression of the brain, leading to brain damage and other complications. A complication often overlooked is the possibility of hearing loss due to ICP. The mechanism of ICP on hearing loss is presumed that the transmission of CSF pressure to and from the Perilymphatic space through a patent cochlear aqueduct. The cochlear aqueduct connects

3400-480: The landmark study of Retzius and Key, Carl Wernicke pioneered sterile ventricular puncture and external drainage of CSF for the treatment of hydrocephalus. It remained an intractable condition until the 20th century, when cerebral shunt and other neurosurgical treatment modalities were developed. The word hydrocephalus is from the Greek ὕδωρ , hydōr meaning 'water' and κεφαλή , kephalē meaning 'head'. Other names for hydrocephalus include "water on

3468-511: The lumbar space of the spine and have the CSF redirected to the peritoneal cavity ( lumbar-peritoneal shunt ). An alternative treatment for obstructive hydrocephalus in selected people is the endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV), whereby a surgically created opening in the floor of the third ventricle allows the CSF to flow directly to the basal cisterns , thereby shortcutting any obstruction, as in aqueductal stenosis. This may or may not be appropriate based on individual anatomy. For infants, ETV

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3536-555: The next six summers making a botanical and agricultural survey of France at the request of the French government, which was published in 1813. In 1807, he was appointed professor of botany in the medical faculty of the University of Montpellier , where he would later become the first chair of botany in 1810. His teaching at the University of Montpellier consisted of field classes attended by 200–300 students, starting at 5:00 am and finishing at 7:00 pm. During this period, de Candolle became

3604-448: The passages that normally allow it to exit the brain are blocked. Consequently, fluid builds inside the brain, causing pressure that dilates the ventricles and compresses the nervous tissue . Compression of the nervous tissue usually results in irreversible brain damage . If the skull bones are not completely ossified when the hydrocephalus occurs, the pressure may also severely enlarge the head. The cerebral aqueduct may be blocked at

3672-440: The person is in an upright position. The infant exhibits fretfulness, poor feeding, and frequent vomiting. As the hydrocephalus progresses, torpor sets in, and infants show lack of interest in their surroundings. Later on, their upper eyelids become retracted and their eyes are turned downwards ("sunset eyes") (due to hydrocephalic pressure on the mesencephalic tegmentum and paralysis of upward gaze). Movements become weak and

3740-609: The person's age, and how much brain tissue has been damaged by the swelling. In infants with hydrocephalus, CSF builds up in the central nervous system (CNS), causing the fontanelle (soft spot) to bulge and the head to be larger than expected. Early symptoms may also include: Symptoms that may occur in older children can include: Because hydrocephalus can injure the brain, thought and behavior may be adversely affected. Learning disabilities , including short-term memory loss , are common among those with hydrocephalus, who tend to score better on verbal IQ than on performance IQ, which

3808-523: The placement of a ventricular catheter (a tube made of silastic ) into the cerebral ventricles to bypass the flow obstruction/malfunctioning arachnoidal granulations and drain the excess fluid into other body cavities, from where it can be resorbed. Most shunts drain the fluid into the peritoneal cavity ( ventriculoperitoneal shunt ), but alternative sites include the right atrium ( ventriculoatrial shunt ), pleural cavity ( ventriculopleural shunt ), and gallbladder . A shunt system can also be placed in

3876-421: The pre-historic area, there were various paintings or artifacts depicting children or adults with macrocephaly (large head) or clinical findings of hydrocephalus. The earliest scientific description of hydrocephalus was written by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates , who coined the word 'hydrocephalus' from the Greek ὕδωρ, hydōr meaning 'water' and κεφαλή, kephalē meaning 'head'. A more accurate description

3944-473: The principle of natural selection . De Candolle recognized that multiple species may develop similar characteristics that did not appear in a common evolutionary ancestor; a phenomenon now known as convergent evolution . During his work with plants, de Candolle noticed that plant leaf movements follow a near-24-hour cycle in constant light, suggesting that an internal biological clock exists. Though many scientists doubted de Candolle's findings, experiments over

4012-568: The project on such a large scale. Consequently, he began his less extensive Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis in 1824. However, he was able to finish only seven volumes, or two-thirds of the whole. Even so, he was able to characterize over one hundred families of plants, helping to lay the empirical basis of general botany. Although de Candolle's main focus was botany, throughout his career he also dabbled in fields related to botany, such as phytogeography , agronomy , paleontology , medical botany, and economic botany . In 1827, he

4080-464: The subarachnoid space following infectious, inflammatory, or hemorrhagic events can also prevent reabsorption of CSF, causing diffuse ventricular dilatation. Noncommunicating hydrocephalus, or obstructive hydrocephalus, is caused by an obstruction to the flow of CSF. Hydrocephalus is usually due to blockage of CSF outflow in the ventricles or in the subarachnoid space over the brain. In a person without hydrocephalus, CSF continuously circulates through

4148-415: The symptoms appear, that is, whether symptoms occur when the person is upright or in a prone position, with the head at roughly the same level as the feet. Standardized protocols for inserting cerebral shunts have been shown to reduce shunt infections. There is tentative evidence that preventative antibiotics may decrease the risk of shunt infections. The hydrocephalus disease burden are concentrated in

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4216-422: The time of birth or may become blocked later in life because of a tumor growing in the brainstem . Hydrocephalus treatment is surgical, creating a way for the excess fluid to drain away. In the short term, an external ventricular drain (EVD), also known as an extraventricular drain or ventriculostomy, provides relief. In the long term, some people will need any of various types of cerebral shunt . It involves

4284-508: The work, editing a further ten volumes, with contributions from a range of authors. Volume 17 was published in October 1873. The fourth and final part of the index came out in 1874. The Prodromus remained incomplete, dealing only with dicotyledons . In the Prodromus , De Candolle further developed his concept of families . Note that this system was published well before there were internationally accepted rules for botanical nomenclature . Here,

4352-589: Was a married father of two children, and worked as a civil servant, leading an at least superficially normal life, despite having enlarged ventricles with a decreased volume of brain tissue. "What I find amazing to this day is how the brain can deal with something which you think should not be compatible with life", commented Dr. Max Muenke, a pediatric brain-defect specialist at the National Human Genome Research Institute . "If something happens very slowly over quite some time, maybe over decades,

4420-608: Was also among the first to recognize the difference between the morphological and physiological characteristics of organs. He ascribed plant morphology as being related to the number of organs and their positions relative to each other rather than to their various physiological properties. Consequently, this made him the first to attempt to attribute specific reasons for structural and numerical relationships amongst organs, and thus to distinguish between major and minor aspects of plant symmetry. To account for modifications of symmetry in parts of different plants, an occurrence that could hinder

4488-527: Was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands . Augustin de Candolle was the first of four generations of botanists in the de Candolle dynasty. He married Mademoiselle Torras and their son, Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle , eventually succeeded to his father's chair in botany and continued the Prodromus . Casimir de Candolle , Augustin de Candolle's grandson, also contributed to

4556-624: Was later given by the Roman physician Galen in the second century AD. The first clinical description of an operative procedure for hydrocephalus appears in the Al-Tasrif (1,000 AD) by the Arab surgeon Abulcasis , who described the evacuation of superficial intracranial fluid in hydrocephalic children. He described it in his chapter on neurosurgical disease, describing infantile hydrocephalus as being caused by mechanical compression. He wrote: The skull of

4624-615: Was named after de Candolle and his descendants in honor of their contribution to the field of botany. He was a mentor to the French-Mexican botanist Jean-Louis Berlandier and is credited with encouraging Marie-Anne Libert to investigate cryptogamic flora. De Candolle was the first to put forward the idea of "Nature's war", writing of plants being "at war one with another" with the meaning of different species fighting each other for space and resources. Charles Darwin studied de Candolle's "natural system" of classification in 1826 when at

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