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35-438: PEAR employed electronic random event generators (REGs) to explore the ability of test subjects to use psychokinesis to influence the random output distribution of these devices to conform to their pre-recorded intentions to produce higher numbers, lower numbers, or nominal baselines. Most of these experiments utilized a microelectronic REG, but experiments were also conducted with "a giant, wall-mounted pachinko -like machine with

70-523: A comparator . If the voltage is above threshold, the comparator output is 1, otherwise 0. The random bit value is latched using a flip-flop. Sources of noise vary and include: The drawbacks of using noise sources for an RNG design are: The idea of chaos-based noise stems from the use of a complex system that is hard to characterize by observing its behavior over time. For example, lasers can be put into (undesirable in other applications) chaos mode with chaotically fluctuating power, with power detected using

105-401: A deterministic algorithm and non-physical nondeterministic random bit generators that do not include hardware dedicated to generation of entropy. Many natural phenomena generate low-level, statistically random " noise " signals, including thermal and shot noise, jitter and metastability of electronic circuits, Brownian motion , and atmospheric noise . Researchers also used

140-475: A hardware random number generator ( HRNG ), true random number generator ( TRNG ), non-deterministic random bit generator ( NRBG ), or physical random number generator is a device that generates random numbers from a physical process capable of producing entropy (in other words, the device always has access to a physical entropy source ), unlike the pseudorandom number generator (PRNG, a.k.a. "deterministic random bit generator", DRBG) that utilizes

175-462: A photodiode and sampled by a comparator. The design can be quite small, as all photonics elements can be integrated on-chip. Stipčević & Koç characterize this technique as "most objectionable", mostly due to the fact that chaotic behavior is usually controlled by a differential equation and no new randomness is introduced, thus there is a possibility of the chaos-based TRNG producing a limited subset of possible output strings. The TRNGs based on

210-407: A TRNG (when compared with pseudo random number generators) provide no meaningful benefits. TRNGs have additional drawbacks for data science and statistical applications: impossibility to re-run a series of numbers unless they are stored, reliance on an analog physical entity can obscure the failure of the source. The TRNGs therefore are primarily used in the applications where their unpredictability and

245-558: A cascade of bouncing balls". In 1986 associates of PEAR published data collected over the course of seven years from a group of subjects attempting to influence random number generators across millions of trials. In all cases, the observed effects were very small (between one and about 0.1%), and although the statistical significance of the results at the P<;0.05 level is not generally disputed, detractors point to potential ethical violations and flaws in experiment procedures, as well as questioning

280-507: A fast-rotating 10-sector disk that was illuminated by periodic bursts of light. The sampling was done by a human who wrote the number under the light beam onto a pad. The device was utilized to produce a 100,000-digit random number table (at the time such tables were used for statistical experiments, like PRNG nowadays). On 29 April 1947, the RAND Corporation began generating random digits with an "electronic roulette wheel", consisting of

315-556: A free-running oscillator (FRO) typically utilize one or more ring oscillators (ROs), outputs of which are sampled using yet another oscillator. Since inverters forming the RO can be thought of as amplifiers with a very large gain, an FRO output exhibits very fast oscillations in phase in frequency domains. The FRO-based TRNGs are very popular due to their use of the standard digital logic despite issues with randomness proofs and chip-to-chip variability. Quantum random number generation technology

350-450: A free-running oscillator-based TRNG can be attacked using a frequency injection . There are mathematical techniques for estimating the entropy of a sequence of symbols. None are so reliable that their estimates can be fully relied upon; there are always assumptions which may be very difficult to confirm. These are useful for determining if there is enough entropy in a seed pool, for example, but they cannot, in general, distinguish between

385-515: A large and carefully prepared table had never before been available. It has been a useful source for simulations, modeling, and for deriving the arbitrary constants in cryptographic algorithms to demonstrate that the constants had not been selected maliciously (" nothing up my sleeve numbers "). Since the early 1950s, research into TRNGs has been highly active, with thousands of research works published and about 2000 patents granted by 2017. A lot of different TRNG designs were proposed over time with

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420-402: A large variety of noise sources and digitization techniques ("harvesting"). However, practical considerations (size, power, cost, performance, robustness) dictate the following desirable traits: Stipčević & Koç in 2014 classified the physical phenomena used to implement TRNG into four groups: Noise-based RNGs generally follow the same outline: the source of a noise generator is fed into

455-423: A property can be "quantized" is referred to as "the hypothesis of quantization ". This means that the magnitude of the physical property can take on only discrete values consisting of integer multiples of one quantum. For example, a photon is a single quantum of light of a specific frequency (or of any other form of electromagnetic radiation ). Similarly, the energy of an electron bound within an atom

490-465: A random bit) dates at least to the times of ancient Rome . The first documented use of a physical random number generator for scientific purposes was by Francis Galton (1890). He devised a way to sample a probability distribution using a common gambling dice. In addition to the top digit, Galton also looked at the face of a dice closest to him, thus creating 6*4 = 24 outcomes (about 4.6 bits of randomness). Kendall and Babington-Smith (1938) used

525-446: A random frequency pulse source of about 100,000 pulses per second gated once per second with a constant frequency pulse and fed into a five-bit binary counter. Douglas Aircraft built the equipment, implementing Cecil Hasting's suggestion (RAND P-113) for a noise source (most likely the well known behavior of the 6D4 miniature gas thyratron tube, when placed in a magnetic field ). Twenty of the 32 possible counter values were mapped onto

560-594: A sense that they can only operate in a fully controlled, trusted environment. The failure of a TRNG can be quite complex and subtle, necessitating validation of not just the results (the output bit stream), but of the unpredictability of the entropy source. Hardware random number generators should be constantly monitored for proper operation to protect against the entropy source degradation due to natural causes and deliberate attacks. FIPS Pub 140-2 and NIST Special Publication 800-90B define tests which can be used for this. The minimal set of real-time tests mandated by

595-470: A single test subject (presumed to be a member of PEAR's staff) participated in 15% of PEAR's trials, and was responsible for half of the total observed effect. James Alcock in a review mentioned various problems with the PEAR experiments such as poor controls and documentation with the possibility of fraud, data selection and optional stopping not being ruled out. Alcock concluded there was no reason to believe

630-433: A true random source and a pseudorandom generator. This problem is avoided by the conservative use of hardware entropy sources. Quantum In physics , a quantum ( pl. : quanta ) is the minimum amount of any physical entity ( physical property ) involved in an interaction . Quantum is a discrete quantity of energy proportional in magnitude to the frequency of the radiation it represents. The fundamental notion that

665-423: Is expected to output near-perfect random numbers (" full entropy "). A physical process usually does not have this property, and a practical TRNG typically includes a few blocks: Hardware random number generators generally produce only a limited number of random bits per second. In order to increase the available output data rate, they are often used to generate the " seed " for a faster PRNG. DRBG also helps with

700-470: Is quantized and can exist only in certain discrete values. Atoms and matter in general are stable because electrons can exist only at discrete energy levels within an atom. Quantization is one of the foundations of the much broader physics of quantum mechanics . Quantization of energy and its influence on how energy and matter interact ( quantum electrodynamics ) is part of the fundamental framework for understanding and describing nature. The word quantum

735-464: Is the neuter singular of the Latin interrogative adjective quantus , meaning "how much". " Quanta ", the neuter plural, short for "quanta of electricity" (electrons), was used in a 1902 article on the photoelectric effect by Philipp Lenard , who credited Hermann von Helmholtz for using the word in the area of electricity. However, the word quantum in general was well known before 1900, e.g. quantum

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770-505: Is well established with 8 commercial quantum random number generator ( QRNG ) products offered before 2017. Herrero-Collantes & Garcia-Escartin list the following stochastic processes as "quantum": To reduce costs and increase robustness of quantum random number generators, online services have been implemented. A plurality of quantum random number generators designs are inherently untestable and thus can be manipulated by adversaries. Mannalath et al. call these designs "trusted" in

805-574: The German Physical Society , and introduced the idea of quantization for the first time as a part of his research on black-body radiation. As a result of his experiments, Planck deduced the numerical value of h , known as the Planck constant , and reported more precise values for the unit of electrical charge and the Avogadro–;Loschmidt number , the number of real molecules in a mole , to

840-465: The photoelectric effect , involving a beam splitter , other quantum phenomena, and even the nuclear decay (due to practical considerations the latter, as well as the atmospheric noise, is not viable). While "classical" (non-quantum) phenomena are not truly random, an unpredictable physical system is usually acceptable as a source of randomness, so the qualifiers "true" and "physical" are used interchangeably. A hardware random number generator

875-502: The 10 decimal digits and the other 12 counter values were discarded. The results of a long run from the RAND machine, filtered and tested, were converted into a table, which originally existed only as a deck of punched cards , but was later published in 1955 as a book, 50 rows of 50 digits on each page ( A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates ). The RAND table was a significant breakthrough in delivering random numbers because such

910-568: The German Physical Society. After his theory was validated, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery in 1918. While quantization was first discovered in electromagnetic radiation , it describes a fundamental aspect of energy not just restricted to photons. In the attempt to bring theory into agreement with experiment, Max Planck postulated that electromagnetic energy

945-512: The certification bodies is not large; for example, NIST in SP 800-90B requires just two continuous health tests : Just as with other components of a cryptography system, a cryptographic random number generator should be designed to resist certain attacks . Defending against these attacks is difficult without a hardware entropy source. The physical processes in HRNG introduce new attack surfaces. For example,

980-415: The cryptographic applications: A typical way to fulfill these requirements is to use a TRNG to seed a cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator . Physical devices were used to generate random numbers for thousands of years, primarily for gambling . Dice in particular have been known for more than 5000 years (found on locations in modern Iraq and Iran), and flipping a coin (thus producing

1015-710: The experimental work of Lenard (who explained his results by using the term quanta of electricity ), Albert Einstein suggested that radiation existed in spatially localized packets which he called "quanta of light" (" Lichtquanta "). The concept of quantization of radiation was discovered in 1900 by Max Planck , who had been trying to understand the emission of radiation from heated objects, known as black-body radiation . By assuming that energy can be absorbed or released only in tiny, differential, discrete packets (which he called "bundles", or "energy elements"), Planck accounted for certain objects changing color when heated. On December 14, 1900, Planck reported his findings to

1050-405: The importance of large-sample studies that only marginally clear the p<0.05 significance threshold. The baseline for chance behavior used did not vary as statistically appropriate (baseline bind). Two PEAR researchers attributed this baseline bind to the motivation of the operators to achieve a good baseline and indicates that the random number generator used was not random. It has been noted that

1085-418: The impossibility to re-run the sequence of numbers are crucial to the success of the implementation: in cryptography and gambling machines. The major use for hardware random number generators is in the field of data encryption , for example to create random cryptographic keys and nonces needed to encrypt and sign data. In addition to randomness, there are at least two additional requirements imposed by

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1120-515: The noise source "anonymization" (whitening out the noise source identifying characteristics) and entropy extraction . With a proper DRBG algorithm selected ( cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator , CSPRNG), the combination can satisfy the requirements of Federal Information Processing Standards and Common Criteria standards. Hardware random number generators can be used in any application that needs randomness. However, in many scientific applications additional cost and complexity of

1155-683: The procedure adopted. Details are not given about the subjects, the times they were tested, or the precise conditions under which they were tested." Physicist professor Milton Rothman has noted that Jahn's experiments at PEAR started from an idealistic assumption, ignored the laws of physics and had no basis in reality. PEAR's results have been criticized for deficient reproducibility . In one instance two German organizations failed to reproduce PEAR's results, while PEAR similarly failed to reproduce their own results. An attempt by York University's Stan Jeffers also failed to replicate PEAR's results. Hardware random number generator In computing ,

1190-412: The results were from paranormal origin. The psychologist C. E. M. Hansel , who evaluated Jahn's early psychokinesis experiments at the PEAR laboratory, wrote that a satisfactory control series had not been employed, that they had not been independently replicated, and that the reports lacked detail. Hansel noted that "very little information is provided about the design of the experiment, the subjects, or

1225-581: Was used in E. A. Poe's Loss of Breath . It was often used by physicians , such as in the term quantum satis , "the amount which is enough". Both Helmholtz and Julius von Mayer were physicians as well as physicists. Helmholtz used quantum with reference to heat in his article on Mayer's work, and the word quantum can be found in the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics by Mayer in his letter dated July 24, 1841. In 1901, Max Planck used quanta to mean "quanta of matter and electricity", gas, and heat. In 1905, in response to Planck's work and

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