150-570: Portus Adurni was a Roman fort in the Roman province of Britannia situated at the north end of Portsmouth Harbour . It was part of the Saxon Shore , and is the best-preserved Roman fort north of the Alps. Around an eighth of the fort has been excavated. It was later converted into a medieval castle known as Portchester Castle . The name Portus Adurni appears only in the list of Saxon Shore forts in
300-402: A buccinator . Ordinary camp life began with a buccina call at daybreak, the first watch of the day. The soldiers arose at this time and shortly after gathered in the company area for breakfast and assembly. The centurions were up before them and off to the principia where they and the equites were required to assemble. The regimental commanders, the tribunes, were already converging on
450-558: A Kentish charter of 898 Edward witnessed as rex Saxonum , suggesting that Alfred may have followed the strategy adopted by his grandfather Egbert of strengthening his son's claim to succeed to the West Saxon throne by making him sub-king of Kent. Once Edward grew up, Alfred was able to give him military commands and experience in royal administration. The English defeated renewed Viking attacks in 893 to 896, and in Richard Abels ' view,
600-511: A Roman camp, for example Marsala in Sicily, the ancient Lilybaeum, where the name of the main street, the Cassaro, perpetuates the name "castrum". The castrum's special structure also defended from attacks. The base ( munimentum , "fortification") was placed entirely within the vallum ("wall"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The vallum
750-516: A building or plot of land, used as a fortified military base . In English usage, castrum commonly translates to "Roman fort", "Roman camp" and "Roman fortress". However, scholastic convention tends to translate castrum as "fort", "camp", "marching camp" or "fortress". Romans used the term castrum for different sizes of camps – including large legionary fortresses, smaller forts for cohorts or for auxiliary forces, temporary encampments , and "marching" forts. The diminutive form castellum
900-415: A camp had both public and private latrines . A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the aqueduct , a structure running
1050-405: A few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: tertia castra , quarta castra , etc. ( a camp of three days , four days , etc.). More permanent camps were castra stativa ( standing camps ). The least permanent of these were castra aestiva or aestivalia , "summer camps", in which
1200-532: A flat location such as Walton Castle. The fort was built during the 3rd century as part of the so-called Saxon Shore forts to protect the southern coastline of Britain , possibly from Saxon raiders. It occupies a commanding position at the head of Portsmouth Harbour . The fort is square, enclosing an area of 9 acres (36,000 m) with outer walls 20 feet (6 m) high, 10 feet (3 m) thick, 210 yards (200 m) long and constructed of coursed flint bonded with limestone slabs. Square-shaped forts became widely used during
1350-531: A general staff officer, who might manage training at several camps. According to Vegetius, the men might take a 32 kilometres (20 mi) hike or a 68 kilometres (42 mi) jog under full pack, or swim a river. Marching drill was always in order. Each soldier was taught the use of every weapon and also was taught to ride. Seamanship was taught at naval bases. Soldiers were generalists in the military and construction arts. They practiced archery, spear-throwing and above all swordsmanship against posts ( pali ) fixed in
1500-455: A large army to lay siege to Maldon, but the garrison held out until it was relieved and the retreating army was heavily defeated. Edward then returned to Towcester and reinforced its fort with a stone wall, and the Danes of nearby Northampton submitted to him. The armies of Cambridge and East Anglia also submitted, and by the end of the year the only Danish armies still holding out were those of four of
1650-457: A modern study shows that the intervallum "was 1/16th of the square root of the area it enclosed in the fort." Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the intervallum , which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the vallum . Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the Via Sagularis , probably a type of "service road", as the sagum , a kind of cloak,
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#17328477242861800-511: A murky political coup." The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was compiled at the West Saxon court from the 890s, and the entries for the late ninth and early tenth centuries are seen by historians as reflecting the West Saxon viewpoint; Davidson observes: "Alfred and Edward possessed skilled "spin doctors"." Some versions of the Chronicle incorporate part of a lost Mercian Register , which gives a Mercian perspective and details of Æthelflæd's campaign against
1950-645: A new Mercian minster established by Æthelred and Æthelflæd in Gloucester and the Danes were compelled to accept peace on Edward's terms. In the following year, the Northumbrian Danes retaliated by raiding Mercia, but on their way home they were met by a combined Mercian and West Saxon army at the Battle of Tettenhall , where the Vikings suffered a disastrous defeat. After that, the Northumbrian Danes did not venture south of
2100-628: A room, who slept on bunkbeds. The soldiers in each room were also required to cook their own meals and eat with their "roommates". From the time of Augustus more permanent castra with wooden or stone buildings and walls were introduced as the distant and hard-won boundaries of the expanding empire required permanent garrisons to control local and external threats from warlike tribes. Previously, legions were raised for specific military campaigns and subsequently disbanded, requiring only temporary castra. From then on many castra of various sizes were established, many of which became permanent settlements. From
2250-603: A single, south-centred, Anglo-Saxon kingdom, yet posthumously his achievements have been all but forgotten." In 1999 a conference on his reign was held at the University of Manchester , and the papers given on this occasion were published as a book in 2001. Prior to this conference, no monographs had been published on Edward's reign, whereas his father has been the subject of numerous biographies and other studies. Higham summarises Edward's legacy as follows: Edward's cognomen 'the Elder'
2400-400: A stockade, for which the soldiers carried stakes, and a ditch. The castra could be prepared under attack within a hollow square or behind a battle line. Considering that the earliest military shelters were tents made of hide or cloth, and all but the most permanent bases housed the men in tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets, one castrum may well have acquired
2550-517: A stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the intervallum , where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the Via Principalis . The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for
2700-512: Is De Munitionibus Castrorum , a manuscript of 11 pages that dates most probably from the late 1st to early 2nd century AD. Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. "… as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight until they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that
2850-462: Is a change of meaning from the reflexes in other languages, which still mean some sort of knife, axe, or spear. Pokorny explains it as 'Lager' als 'abgeschnittenes Stück Land' , "a lager, as a cut-off piece of land"> If this is the civilian interpretation, the military version must be "military reservation", a piece of land cut off from the common land around it and modified for military use. All castra must be defended by works, often no more than
3000-409: Is archaeological evidence in one case of an indoor equestrian ring. Apart from the training, each soldier had a regular job on the base, of which there was a large variety from the various kinds of clerk to the craftsmen. Soldiers changed jobs frequently. The commander's policy was to have all the soldiers skilled in all the arts and crafts so that they could be as interchangeable as possible. Even then
3150-650: Is independent support from literary sources and coins. Alfred Smyth points out that Edward was not in a position to impose the same conditions on the Scots and the Northumbrians as he could on conquered Vikings, and argues that the Chronicle presented a treaty between kings as a submission to Wessex. Stafford observes that the rulers had met at Bakewell on the border between Mercia and Northumbria, and that meetings on borders were generally considered to avoid any implication of submission by either side. Davidson points out that
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#17328477242863300-456: Is known about other Anglo-Saxon princes, providing details about the training of a prince in a period of Carolingian influence, and Yorke suggests that we may know so much due to Alfred's efforts to portray his son as the most throneworthy ætheling. Æthelhelm is recorded only in Alfred's will of the mid-880s, and probably died at some time in the next decade, but Æthelwold is listed above Edward in
3450-671: Is open to visitors throughout the year. 50°50′17″N 1°06′54″W / 50.83806°N 1.11500°W / 50.83806; -1.11500 Castra In the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire , the Latin word castrum ( pl. : castra ) was a military-related term. In Latin usage, the singular form castrum meant ' fort ', while the plural form castra meant 'camp'. The singular and plural forms could refer in Latin to either
3600-500: Is the start of the continuous history in England of trial by ordeal ; it is probably mentioned in the laws of King Ine (688 to 726), but not in later codes such as those of Alfred. The administrative and legal system in Edward's reign may have depended extensively on written records, almost none of which survive. Edward was one of the few Anglo-Saxon kings to issue laws about bookland. There
3750-399: The buccina or bucina , the cornu and the tuba . As they did not possess valves for regulating the pitch, the range of these instruments was somewhat limited. Nevertheless, the musicians ( aenatores , "brassmen") managed to define enough signals for issuing commands. The instrument used to mark the passage of a watch was the buccina , from which the trumpet derives. It was sounded by
3900-629: The Balkans , either by itself or in various compounds such as the World Heritage Site of Gjirokastër (earlier Argurokastro ). The terms stratopedon ( army camp ) and phrourion ( fortification ) were used by Greek language authors to translate castrum and castellum , respectively. A castrum was designed to house and protect the soldiers, their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. The most detailed description that survives about Roman military camps
4050-583: The English Channel . These forts became defensive holding points for the rebel Carausius , who in 285 was given the task of solving the Saxon piracy problem in the English Channel. When Carausius was charged with keeping the pirates' booty for himself, he retreated to Britain and proclaimed himself Emperor. The revolt went on for almost 10 years while other Roman generals tried and failed to dislodge him, until he
4200-553: The Principia contained the Quaestorium . By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the Quaestorium were the quarters of the headquarters guard ( Statores ), who amounted to two centuries (companies). If the Imperator was present they served as his bodyguard. Further from the Quaestorium were
4350-522: The Via Praetoria offered another division of the camp into four quarters. Across the central plaza ( principia ) to the east or west was the main gate, the Porta Praetoria . Marching through it and down "headquarters street" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps. On the other side of
4500-447: The Via Principalis were the homes or tents of the several tribunes in front of the barracks of the units they commanded. The central region of the Via Principalis with the buildings for the command staff was called the Principia (plural of principium ). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the Via Principalis was the Via Praetoria , so called because the praetorium interrupted it. The Via Principalis and
4650-546: The Welsh place name prefix caer- (e.g. Caerleon and Caerwent ) and English suffixes -caster and -chester (e.g. Winchester and Lancaster ). Castrorum Filius , "son of the camps", was one of the names used by the emperor Caligula and then also by other emperors. Castro , also derived from Castrum , is a common Spanish family name as well as toponym in Spain and other Hispanophone countries, Italy , and
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4800-597: The latera ("sides") were the Arae (sacrificial altars), the Auguratorium (for auspices ), the Tribunal , where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain ( horrea ) or meat ( carnarea ). Sometimes the horrea were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates
4950-503: The medici ordinarii , had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well. Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army did not extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry. However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as
5100-454: The praetorium . There the general staff planned the day. At a staff meeting the tribunes received the password and the orders of the day. They brought those back to the centuriones , who returned to their company areas to instruct the men. For soldiers, the main agendum was a vigorous training session lasting about a watch long. Recruits received two, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. Planning and supervision of training were under
5250-492: The 3rd century, being highly practical and defensible. Portus Adurni has towers all along the walls, as well as towers that angle out at the corners. Historians feel this paramount concern for defensibility may reflect the seriousness of the Saxon raids during this time, or the defensive pressures of the Carausian Revolt (see below). The gates of Portus Adurni are of particular interest: they are indented inwards, so as to trap
5400-698: The 5th-century Notitia Dignitatum , and the name is usually identified with Portchester, although it has occasionally been identified with the Roman fort at Walton Castle, Suffolk (which has now been washed away by the sea). Portus Adurni may be identical with the Ardaoneon listed in the Ravenna Cosmography , and Rivet and Smith derive both names from the British "ardu-" meaning "height". This derivation fits Portchester (which lies beneath Portsdown Hill ) better than
5550-546: The 890s, does not mention Edward's military successes. These are known only from the late tenth century chronicle of Æthelweard , such as his account of the Battle of Farnham, in which in Nelson's view "Edward's military prowess, and popularity with a following of young warriors, are highlighted." Towards the end of his life Alfred invested his young grandson Æthelstan in a ceremony which historians see as designation as eventual successor to
5700-556: The 903 charters with one of 901 in which the Mercian rulers were "by grace of God, holding, governing and defending the monarchy of the Mercians". Davidson comments that "the evidence for Mercian subordination is decidedly mixed. Ultimately, the ideology of the 'Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons' may have been less successful in achieving the absorption of Mercia and more something which I would see as
5850-508: The Elder". However, even as war leader he was only one of a succession of successful kings; his achievements were overshadowed because he did not have a famous victory like Alfred's at Edington and Æthelstan's at the Battle of Brunanburh , and William of Malmesbury qualified his praise of Edward by saying, "The chief prize of victory, in my judgment, is due to his father." Edward has also been overshadowed by chroniclers' admiration for his highly regarded sister, Æthelflæd. A principal reason for
6000-491: The Five Boroughs, Leicester, Stamford, Nottingham, and Lincoln. In early 918, Æthelflæd secured the submission of Leicester without a fight, and the Danes of Northumbrian York offered her their allegiance, probably for protection against Norse (Norwegian) Vikings who had invaded Northumbria from Ireland, but she died on 12 June before she could take up the proposal. The same offer is not known to have been made to Edward, and
6150-546: The Mercians, and she had probably been acting as ruler for several years as Æthelred seems to have been incapacitated in later life. Edward and Æthelflæd then began the construction of fortresses to guard against Viking attacks and protect territory captured from them. In November 911, he constructed a fort on the north bank of the River Lea at Hertford to guard against attack by the Danes of Bedford and Cambridge . In 912, he marched with his army to Maldon, Essex , and ordered
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6300-579: The Mercians, but in December Edward took her into Wessex and imposed direct rule on Mercia. By the end of the 910s he ruled Wessex, Mercia and East Anglia, and only Northumbria remained under Viking rule. In 924 he faced a Mercian and Welsh revolt at Chester , and after putting it down he died at Farndon in Cheshire on 17 July 924. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Æthelstan . Edward's two youngest sons later reigned as kings Edmund I and Eadred . Edward
6450-765: The Mercians, under the aforesaid king". Other charters were issued by the Mercian leaders which did not contain any acknowledgment of Edward's authority, but they did not issue their own coinage. This view of Edward's status is accepted by Martin Ryan, who states that Æthelred and Æthelflæd had "a considerable but ultimately subordinate share of royal authority" in English Mercia. Other historians disagree. Pauline Stafford describes Æthelflæd as "the last Mercian queen", while in Charles Insley's view Mercia kept its independence until Æthelflæd's death in 918. Michael Davidson contrasts
6600-599: The New Minster. Edward was remembered by the New Minster as a benefactor, but at the Old Minster as rex avidus (greedy king). He may have built the new church because he did not think that the Old Minster was grand enough to be the royal mausoleum for kings of the Anglo-Saxons, not just the West Saxons like their predecessors. Alan Thacker comments: Patrick Wormald observes: "The thought occurs that neither Alfred nor Edward
6750-817: The Norse Vikings took York in 919. According to the main West Saxon version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , after Æthelflæd's death the Mercians submitted to Edward, but the Mercian version (the Mercian Register ) states that in December 918 her daughter Ælfwynn "was deprived of all authority in Mercia and taken into Wessex". Mercia may have made a bid for continued semi-independence which was suppressed by Edward, and it then came under his direct rule. Stamford had surrendered to Edward before Æthelflæd's death, and Nottingham did
6900-625: The River Humber during Edward's reign, and he and his Mercian allies were able to concentrate on conquering the southern Danelaw in East Anglia and the Five Boroughs of Viking east Mercia: Derby , Leicester , Lincoln , Nottingham and Stamford . In 911, Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians, died, and Edward took control of the Mercian lands around London and Oxford . Æthelred was succeeded as ruler by his widow Æthelflæd (Edward's sister) as Lady of
7050-512: The Vikings. In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, connection by marriage with the West Saxon royal house was seen as prestigious by continental rulers. In the mid-890s Alfred had married his daughter Ælfthryth to Baldwin II of Flanders, and in 919 Edward married his daughter Eadgifu to Charles the Simple , King of West Francia . In 925, after Edward's death, another daughter Eadgyth married Otto ,
7200-516: The Vikings. Charters rarely survive unless they concerned property which passed to the church and were preserved in their archives, and another possibility is that Edward was making grants of property only on terms which ensured that they returned to male members of the royal house; such charters would not be found in church archives. Clause 3 of the law code called I Edward provides that people convincingly charged with perjury shall not be allowed to clear themselves by oath, but only by ordeal . This
7350-483: The West Saxon policy of strengthening links with Mercia. Historians estimate that Edward was probably born in the mid-870s. His eldest sister, Æthelflæd, was probably born about a year after her parents' marriage, and Edward was brought up with his youngest sister, Ælfthryth; Yorke argues that he was therefore probably nearer in age to Ælfthryth than Æthelflæd. Edward led troops in battle in 893, and must have been of marriageable age in that year as his oldest son Æthelstan
7500-461: The aisle), ten men per tent. Ideally a company took 10 tents, arranged in a line of 10 companies, with the 10th near the Porta Decumana . Of the c. 9.2 square metres of bunk space each man received 0.9, or about 0.6 by 1.5 m, which was only practical if they slept with heads to the aisle. The single tent with its men was called contubernium , also used for "squad". A squad during some periods
7650-458: The allegations should be seen in the context of the disputed succession in 924, and were not an issue in the 890s. Ecgwynn probably died by 899, as around the time of Alfred's death Edward married Ælfflæd , the daughter of Ealdorman Æthelhelm, probably of Wiltshire . Janet Nelson suggests that there was conflict between Alfred and Edward in the 890s. She points out that the contemporary Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , produced under court auspices in
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#17328477242867800-414: The aristocratic tenth-century Archbishop of Canterbury . But William of Malmesbury also stated that Æthelstan's accession in 924 was opposed by a nobleman who claimed that his mother was a concubine of low birth. The suggestion that Ecgwynn was Edward's mistress is accepted by some historians such as Simon Keynes and Richard Abels, but Yorke and Æthelstan's biographer, Sarah Foot , disagree, arguing that
7950-403: The arms at one end and the common area at the other. The company area was used for cooking and recreation such as gaming. The army provisioned the men and had their bread ( panis militaris ) baked in outdoor ovens, but the men were responsible for cooking and serving themselves. They could buy meals or supplementary foods at the canteen. The officers were allowed servants. For sanitary facilities,
8100-434: The aspect ratio of the castra one could determine the order of battle, and the size of the legion it housed determined the area of the camp. Steinhoff theorizes that Richardson has identified a commonality and builds on the latter's detailed studies to suggest that North African encampments in the time of Hadrian were based on the same geometrical skill. The street plans of various present-day cities still retain traces of
8250-495: The basic plan is the same. The hypothesis of an Etruscan origin is a viable alternative. The ideal enforced a linear plan for a camp or fort: a square for camps to contain one legion or smaller unit, a rectangle for two legions, each legion being placed back-to-back with headquarters next to each other. The religious devotion of the Romans to geometry caused them to build into their camps whole-numbered right triangles. Laying it out
8400-536: The beginning of Edward's reign, his mother Ealhswith founded the abbey of St Mary for nuns, known as the Nunnaminster , in Winchester. Edward's daughter Eadburh became a nun there, and she was venerated as a saint and the subject of a hagiography by Osbert of Clare in the twelfth century. In 901, Edward started building a major religious community for men, possibly in accordance with his father's wishes. The monastery
8550-672: The building of a fort at Witham and a second fort at Hertford, which protected London from attack and encouraged many English living under Danish rule in Essex to submit to him. In 913, there was a pause in his activities, although Æthelflæd continued her fortress building in Mercia. In 914, a Viking army sailed from Brittany and ravaged the Severn estuary. It then attacked Ergyng in south-east Wales (now Archenfield in Herefordshire ) and captured Cyfeilliog , Bishop of Ergyng. Edward ransomed him for
8700-547: The bulk of his property to Edward, including all his booklands (land vested in a charter which could be alienated by the holder, as opposed to folkland, which had to pass to heirs of the body ) in Kent . Alfred also advanced men who could be depended on to support his plans for his succession, such as his brother-in-law, a Mercian ealdorman called Æthelwulf, and his son-in-law Æthelred. Edward witnessed several of his father's charters, and often accompanied him on royal peregrinations. In
8850-400: The camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The classici and the optiones of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military. The ideal plan was typically modified to suit the terrain and
9000-571: The cathedral centres of Canterbury, Winchester and Worcester; monasteries did not make a significant contribution until Æthelstan's reign. Very little survives of the manuscript production of Edward's reign. The only surviving large-scale embroideries which were certainly made in Anglo-Saxon England date to Edward's reign. They are a stole , a maniple and a possible girdle removed from the coffin of St Cuthbert in Durham Cathedral in
9150-400: The changes, at the imposition of rule by distant Wessex, and at fiscal demands by Edward's reeves, may have provoked the revolt at Chester. He died at the royal estate of Farndon, twelve miles south of Chester, on 17 July 924, shortly after putting down the revolt, and was buried in the New Minster, Winchester. In 1109, the New Minster was moved outside the city walls to become Hyde Abbey , and
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#17328477242869300-411: The circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view. If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain. The camp was best placed on
9450-524: The communities near a base. They became permanent members of the community and would stay on after the troops were withdrawn, as in the notable case of Saint Patrick 's family. Edward the Elder Edward the Elder (870s? – 17 July 924) was King of the Anglo-Saxons from 899 until his death in 924. He was the elder son of Alfred the Great and his wife Ealhswith . When Edward succeeded to
9600-401: The connotation of tent. The commonest Latin syntagmata (here phrases) for the term castra are: In Latin the term castrum is much more frequently used as a proper name for geographical locations: e.g., Castrum Album , Castrum Inui , Castrum Novum , Castrum Truentinum , Castrum Vergium . The plural was also used as a place name, as Castra Cornelia , and from this comes
9750-533: The continuation of Alfred's line, that may not have been sufficient to ensure Edward's accession if he had not displayed his fitness for kingship. In about 893, Edward probably married Ecgwynn , who bore him two children, the future King Æthelstan and a daughter who married Sitric Cáech , a Viking King of York. The twelfth-century chronicler William of Malmesbury described Ecgwynn as an illustris femina (noble lady), and stated that Edward chose Æthelstan as his heir as king. She may have been related to St Dunstan ,
9900-482: The courts of Alfred and Edward, and the Mercian dialect and scholarship commanded West Saxon respect. It is uncertain how far Alfred's programmes continued during his son's reign. English translations of works in Latin made during Alfred's reign continued to be copied, but few original works are known. The script known as Anglo-Saxon Square minuscule reached maturity in the 930s, and its earliest phases date to Edward's reign. The main scholarly and scriptorial centres were
10050-584: The defence of Witham. He also helped Earl Thurketil and his followers to leave England, reducing the number of Viking armies in the Midlands. The decisive year in the war was 917. In April, Edward built a fort at Towcester in Northamptonshire as a defence against the Danes of Northampton , and another at an unidentified place called Wigingamere. The Danes launched unsuccessful attacks on Towcester, Bedford and Wigingamere, while Æthelflæd captured Derby, showing
10200-558: The departure of the Roman Army Portus Adurni's location and strong walls made it attractive as a fortress. The fort became an Anglo-Saxon high-status residence with great hall and tower. Later the Roman gateways were rebuilt as well. Portchester is listed as one of thirty-three fortified burhs in the Burghal Hidage , believed to date from the reign of Edward the Elder , who reigned from 899 to 924 AD. The circuit walls of
10350-474: The different textures as you walk along the outer perimeter. The Saxon Shore forts, including Portus Adurni, were built during the mid to late 3rd century amid increased instability in north-eastern Gaul and the Rhineland, eventually leading to the Roman evacuation of that area. The forts were intended to maintain control over the region, and monitor shipping and trade, as well as defending against raids from across
10500-439: The ditch served also as a moat . A legion-sized camp placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery. Around the inside periphery of the vallum was a clear space, the intervallum , which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the vallum and as a storage space for cattle ( capita ) and plunder ( praeda ). The Romans were masters of geometry and showed it in their camps:
10650-439: The early 880s Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians , the ruler of western Mercia, accepted Alfred's lordship and married his daughter Æthelflæd , and around 886 Alfred adopted the new title King of the Anglo-Saxons as the ruler of all Anglo-Saxons not subject to Danish rule. Edward inherited the new title when Alfred died in 899. In 910, a Mercian and West Saxon army inflicted a decisive defeat on an invading Northumbrian army, ending
10800-675: The eastern regions for themselves and allowing Ceolwulf to keep the western ones. In early 878 they invaded Wessex, and many West Saxons submitted to them. Alfred, who was now king, was reduced to a remote base in the Isle of Athelney in Somerset , but the situation was transformed when he won a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington . He was thus able to prevent the Vikings from taking Wessex and western Mercia, although they still occupied Northumbria, East Anglia and eastern Mercia. Edward's parents, Alfred and Ealhswith , married in 868. Ealhswith's father
10950-605: The enemy in an area exposed to walls on three sides; this technique became widely used from the Augustinian age to the fall of the Empire. Unusually for a building of this period, most of the walls and bastions are complete. It has lost only four of its bastions. The walls themselves have been quarried to provide stone for later additions, but from the outside at least they appear much as they did when they were first erected. The walls were built in sections, by groups of gangs, which explains
11100-457: The field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days. Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by architecti , "chief engineers", who requisitioned manual labor from the soldiers at large as required. A unit could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as
11250-632: The fifth). If the camp needed more gates, one or two of the Porta Quintana were built, presumably named dextra and sinistra . If the gates were not built, the Porta Decumana also became the Porta Quintana . At Via Quintana a public market was allowed. The Via Quintana and the Via Principalis divided the camp into three districts: the Latera Praetorii , the Praetentura and the Retentura . In
11400-473: The following year the remains of Edward and his parents were translated to the new church. According to William of Malmesbury, Edward was "much inferior to his father in the cultivation of letters", but "incomparably more glorious in the power of his rule". Other medieval chroniclers expressed similar views, and he was generally seen as inferior in book learning, but superior in military success. John of Worcester described him as "the most invincible King Edward
11550-528: The fort became the outer bailey wall of a Norman castle and later medieval palace. It was used as a gaol during the Napoleonic Wars . Its exceptional condition can therefore be attributed to the fact that, despite short periods of abandonment and longer periods of neglect, the fort was occupied for almost sixteen centuries. The site is owned by the Southwick Estate but managed by English Heritage , and
11700-420: The front the quarters of special forces. These included Classici ("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), Equites ("cavalry"), Exploratores ("scouts"), and Vexillarii (carriers of vexilla , the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there. The part of the Retentura ("stretching to the rear") closest to
11850-594: The future King of Germany and (after Eadgyth's death) Holy Roman Emperor . No battles are recorded between the Anglo-Saxons and the Danish Vikings for several years after the Battle of the Holme , but in 906, Edward agreed to peace with the East Anglian and Northumbrian Danes, suggesting that there had been conflict. According to one version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle he made peace "of necessity", which implies that he
12000-421: The glory belonged to Æthelred and Edward rather than Alfred himself. In 893, Edward defeated the Vikings in the Battle of Farnham although he was unable to follow up his victory as his troops' period of service had expired and he had to release them. The situation was saved by the arrival of troops from London led by Æthelred. Yorke argues that although Alfred packed the witan with members whose interests lay in
12150-410: The goal was not entirely achievable. The gap was bridged by the specialists, the optiones or "chosen men", of which there were many different kinds. For example, a skilled artisan might be chosen to superintend a workshop. Soldiers were also expected to build the camp upon arrival before engaging in any sort of warfare after a day's march. The supply administration was run as a business using money as
12300-400: The ground is uneven, it is first levelled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them." To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock the camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers. The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in
12450-521: The ground. Training was taken very seriously and was democratic. Ordinary soldiers would see all the officers training with them including the praetor or the emperor if he was in camp. Swordsmanship lessons and use of the shooting range probably took place on the campus , a "field" outside the castra , from which English "camp" derives. Its surface could be lightly paved. Winter curtailed outdoor training. The general might in that case have sheds constructed, which served as field houses for training. There
12600-426: The installation as a military facility. For example, none of the soldiers was required to man the walls all the time, but round-the-clock duty required a portion of the soldiers to be on duty at any time. Duty time was divided into vigilia , the eight watches into which the 24-hour day was divided so they stood guard for three hours that day. The Romans used signals on brass instruments to mark time. These were mainly
12750-404: The kingship. Nelson argues that while this may have been proposed by Edward to support the accession of his own son, on the other hand it may have been intended by Alfred as part of a scheme to divide the kingdom between his son and grandson. Æthelstan was sent to be brought up in Mercia by Æthelflæd and Æthelred, but it is not known whether this was Alfred's idea or Edward's. Alfred's wife Ealhswith
12900-448: The large sum of forty pounds of silver. The Vikings were defeated by the armies of Hereford and Gloucester, and gave hostages and oaths to keep the peace. Edward kept an army on the south side of the estuary in case the Vikings broke their promises, and he twice had to repel attacks. In the autumn the Vikings moved on to Ireland. The episode suggests that south-east Wales fell within the West Saxon sphere of power, unlike Brycheiniog just to
13050-413: The last year of his life, when he put down a Mercian and Welsh revolt at Chester. Mercia and the eastern Danelaw were organised into shires at an unknown date in the tenth century, ignoring traditional boundaries, and historians such as Sean Miller and David Griffiths suggest that Edward's imposition of direct control from 919 is a likely context for a change which ignored Mercian sensibilities. Resentment at
13200-416: The late twentieth century and he is now seen as destroying the power of the Vikings in southern England while laying the foundations for a south-centred united English kingdom. Mercia was the dominant kingdom in southern England in the eighth century and maintained its position until it suffered a decisive defeat by Wessex at the Battle of Ellandun in 825. Thereafter the two kingdoms became allies, which
13350-415: The late twentieth century, and Frank Stenton observed that "each of the rulers named in this list had something definite to gain from an acknowledgement of Edward's overlordship." Since the 1980s this submission has been viewed with increasing scepticism, particularly as the passage in the Chronicle is the only evidence for it, unlike other submissions such as that one in 927 to Æthelstan, for which there
13500-703: The legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the Latera was the Armamentarium , a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall. The Praetentura ("stretching to the front") contained the Scamnum Legatorum , the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders ( Legati ). Near the Principia were the Valetudinarium (hospital), Veterinarium (for horses), Fabrica ("workshop", metals and wood), and further to
13650-476: The maintenance of a permanent base was called its territoria . In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not self-sustaining as was the base. In this category were speculae , "watchtowers", castella , "small camps", and naval bases. All
13800-402: The major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since
13950-508: The medium of exchange. The aureus was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the solidus came into use. The larger bases, such as Moguntiacum , minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from Vindolanda in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things,
14100-704: The men of Kent disobeyed the order to retire, and were intercepted by the Danish army. The two sides met at the Battle of the Holme (perhaps Holme in Huntingdonshire ) on 13 December 902. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , the Danes "kept the place of slaughter", meaning that they won the battle, but they suffered heavy losses, including Æthelwold and a King Eohric, possibly of the East Anglian Danes. Kentish losses included Sigehelm, ealdorman of Kent and father of Edward's third wife, Eadgifu. Æthelwold's death ended
14250-566: The most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the De Munitionibus Castrorum and the works of Polybius . Alan Richardson compares both original authors and concludes that "the Hyginian model greatly reduced the area and perimeter length for any given force." P. Fl. Vegetius Renatus has a small section on entrenched camps as well. The terminology varies, but
14400-527: The name Via Decumana or the entire Via Praetoria be replaced with Decumanus Maximus . In peaceful times the camp set up a marketplace with the natives in the area. They were allowed into the camp as far as the units numbered 5 (half-way to the praetorium). There another street crossed the camp at right angles to the Via Decumana , called the Via Quintana , (English: 5th street , from Latin: quintana ,
14550-446: The name of Æthelred or Æthelflæd, but from around 910 mints in English Mercia produced coins with an unusual decorative design on the reverse. This ceased before 920, and probably represents Æthelflæd's way of distinguishing her coinage from that of her brother. There was also a minor issue of coins in the name of Plegmund, Archbishop of Canterbury. There was a dramatic increase in the number of moneyers over Edward's reign, fewer than 25 in
14700-526: The nearby Iron Age hillfort at Badbury Rings . Æthelwold declared that he would live or die at Wimborne, but then left in the night and rode to Northumbria, where the Danes accepted him as king. Edward was crowned on 8 June 900 at Kingston upon Thames . In 901, Æthelwold came with a fleet to Essex , and the following year he persuaded the East Anglian Danes to invade English Mercia and northern Wessex, where his army looted and then returned home. Edward retaliated by ravaging East Anglia, but when he retreated
14850-516: The neglect of Edward is that very few primary sources for his reign survive, whereas there are many for Alfred. He was largely ignored by historians until the late twentieth century, but he is now highly regarded. He is described by Keynes as "far more than the bellicose bit between Alfred and Æthelstan", and according to Nick Higham: "Edward the Elder is perhaps the most neglected of English kings. He ruled an expanding realm for twenty-five years and arguably did as much as any other individual to construct
15000-482: The nineteenth century. They were donated to the shrine by Æthelstan in 934, but inscriptions on the embroideries show that they were commissioned by Edward's second wife, Ælfflæd, as a gift to Frithestan, Bishop of Winchester . They probably did not reach their intended destination because Æthelstan was on bad terms with Winchester. In 901 a meeting at Southampton was attended by Edward's brother and sons, his household thegns and nearly all bishops, but no ealdormen. It
15150-460: The north, where Mercia was dominant. In late 914 Edward built two forts at Buckingham , and Earl Thurketil, the leader of the Danish army at Bedford submitted to him. The following year Edward occupied Bedford, and constructed another fortification on the south bank of the River Great Ouse against a Viking one on the north bank. In 916, he returned to Essex and built a fort at Maldon to bolster
15300-420: The northern places like Britain, where it got cold in the winter, they would make wood or stone barracks. The Romans would also put a fireplace in the barracks. They had about three bunk beds in it. They had a small room beside it where they put their armour; it was as big as the tents. They would make these barracks if the fort they had was going to stay there for good. A tent was 3 by 3.5 metres (0.6 m for
15450-406: The only charter where he appears, probably indicating a higher status. Æthelwold may also have had an advantage because his mother Wulfthryth witnessed a charter as queen, whereas Edward's mother Ealhswith never had a higher status than king's wife. However, Alfred was in a position to give his own son considerable advantages. In his will, he left only a handful of estates to his brother's sons, and
15600-609: The only known case of an Anglo-Saxon prince and princess receiving the same upbringing. As a son of a king, Edward was an ætheling , a prince of the royal house who was eligible for kingship. Even though he had the advantage of being the eldest son of the reigning king, his accession was not assured as he had cousins who had a strong claim to the throne. Æthelhelm and Æthelwold were sons of Æthelred, Alfred's older brother and predecessor as king, but they had been passed over because they were infants when their father died. Asser gives more information about Edward's childhood and youth than
15750-519: The other side was the forum , a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted. The Via Principalis went through the vallum in the Porta Principalis Dextra ("right principal gate") and Porta Principalis Sinistra ("left, etc."), which were gates fortified with turres ("towers"). Which was on the north and which on the south depends on whether the praetorium faced east or west, which remains unknown. Along
15900-510: The palisade. The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centred on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present. Many settlements in Europe originated as Roman military camps and still show traces of their original pattern (e.g. Castres in France , Barcelona in Spain ). The pattern
16050-520: The praetorium the Via Praetoria continued to the wall, where it went through the Porta Decumana . In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the Porta Quaestoria . The term Decumana, "of the 10th", came from the arranging of manipuli or turmae from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the intervallum on that side. The Via Praetoria on that side might take
16200-410: The purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the surrounding natives. Another feature of the camp was the military hospital ( valetudinarium , later hospitium ). Augustus instituted the first permanent medical corps in the Roman army . Its physicians,
16350-480: The reverse. The places of issue were not shown in his reign, but they were in that of his son Æthelstan, allowing the location of many moneyers of Edward's reign to be established. There were mints in Bath , Canterbury , Chester, Chichester , Derby, Exeter , Hereford , London, Oxford, Shaftesbury , Shrewsbury , Southampton , Stafford , Wallingford , Wareham , Winchester and probably other towns. No coins were struck in
16500-475: The same derivation, from the diminutive castellum or "little fort", but does not usually indicate a former Roman camp. Whitley Castle however is an exception, referring to the Roman fort of Epiacum in Northumberland . Activities conducted in a castra can be divided into ordinary and "the duty" or "the watch". Ordinary activity was performed during regular working hours. The duty was associated with operating
16650-460: The same meaning, says Pokorny, as Latin fundus , an estate, or tract of land. This is not any land but is a prepared or cultivated tract, such as a farm enclosed by a fence or a wooden or stone wall of some kind. Cornelius Nepos uses Latin castrum in that sense: when Alcibiades deserts to the Persians, Pharnabazus gives him an estate ( castrum ) worth 500 talents in tax revenues. This
16800-605: The same shortly afterwards. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 918, "All the people who had settled in Mercia, both Danish and English, submitted to him." This would mean that he ruled all England south of the Humber, but it is not clear whether Lincoln was an exception, as coins of Viking York in the early 920s were probably minted at Lincoln. Some Danish jarls were allowed to keep their estates, although Edward probably also rewarded his supporters with land, and some he kept in his own hands. Coin evidence suggests that his authority
16950-423: The same year and who was soon venerated as a saint. Edward's mother died in 902, and he buried her and Alfred there, moving his father's body from the Old Minster. Burials in the early 920s included Edward himself, his brother Æthelweard, and his son Ælfweard . On the other hand, when Æthelstan became king in 924, he did not show any favour to his father's foundation, probably because Winchester sided against him when
17100-535: The same year, and at some date between 909 and 918 Sherborne was divided into three sees, Crediton covering Devon and Cornwall , and Wells covering Somerset, leaving Sherborne with Dorset. The effect of the changes was to strengthen the status of Canterbury compared with Winchester and Sherborne, but the division may have been related to a change in the secular functions of West Saxon bishops, to become agents of royal government in shires rather than provinces, assisting in defence and taking part in shire courts. At
17250-427: The soldiers were housed sub pellibus or sub tentoriis , "under tents". The largest castra were legionary fortresses built as bases for one or more whole legions. Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to castra hiberna containing barracks and other buildings of more solid materials, with timber construction gradually being replaced by stone. Castra hibernas held eight soldiers to
17400-533: The south in the first ten years rising to 67 in the last ten years, around five in English Mercia rising to 23, plus 27 in the conquered Danelaw . In 908, Plegmund conveyed the alms of the English king and people to the Pope, the first visit to Rome by an Archbishop of Canterbury for almost a century, and the journey may have been to seek papal approval for a proposed re-organisation of the West Saxon sees. When Edward came to
17550-475: The summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp ( aquatio ) and pastureland to provide grazing ( pabulatio ) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defence, troops could be formed in an acies , or "battle-line", outside the gates where they could be easily resupplied and replenished as well as being supported by archery from
17700-468: The tents of the Nationes ("natives"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries in double rows of tents or barracks ( Strigae ). One Striga was as long as required and 18 m wide. In it were two Hemistrigia of facing tents centered in its 9 m strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage. In
17850-459: The threat from the northern Vikings. In the decade that followed, Edward conquered Viking-ruled southern England in partnership with his sister Æthelflæd, who had succeeded as Lady of the Mercians following the death of her husband in 911. Historians dispute how far Mercia was dominated by Wessex during this period, and after Æthelflæd's death in June 918, her daughter Ælfwynn briefly became second Lady of
18000-448: The threat to Edward's throne. In London in 886, Alfred had received the formal submission of "all the English people that were not under subjection to the Danes", and thereafter he adopted the title Anglorum Saxonum rex ( King of the Anglo-Saxons ), which is used in his later charters and all but two of Edward's. This is seen by Keynes as "the invention of a wholly new and distinctive polity", covering both West Saxons and Mercians, which
18150-456: The throne Wessex had two dioceses, Winchester , held by Denewulf , and Sherborne , held by Asser. In 908, Denewulf died and was replaced the following year by Frithestan ; soon afterwards Winchester was divided into two sees, with the creation of the diocese of Ramsbury covering Wiltshire and Berkshire , while Winchester was left with Hampshire and Surrey . Forged charters date the division to 909, but this may not be correct. Asser died in
18300-427: The throne was disputed after Edward's death. The only other king buried at the New Minster was Eadwig , in 959. Edward's decision not to expand the Old Minster, but rather to overshadow it with a much larger building, suggests animosity towards Bishop Denewulf, and this was compounded by forcing the Old Minster to cede both land for the new site, and an estate of seventy hides at Beddington to provide an income for
18450-569: The throne, he had to defeat a challenge from his cousin Æthelwold , who had a strong claim to the throne as the son of Alfred's elder brother and predecessor, Æthelred I . Alfred had succeeded Æthelred as king of Wessex in 871, and almost faced defeat against the Danish Vikings until his decisive victory at the Battle of Edington in 878. After the battle, the Vikings still ruled Northumbria , East Anglia and eastern Mercia , leaving only Wessex and western Mercia under Anglo-Saxon control. In
18600-464: The tribesmen tended to build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages ( vici ) of dependents and businessmen. Dependants were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory. Military service was for about 25 years. At the end of that time, the veteran was given a certificate of honorable discharge ( honesta missio ). Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that
18750-506: The value of the English defensive measures, which were aided by disunity and a lack of coordination among the Viking armies. The Danes had built their own fortress at Tempsford in Bedfordshire, but at the end of the summer the English stormed it and killed the last Danish king of East Anglia. The English then took Colchester , although they did not try to hold it. The Danes retaliated by sending
18900-458: The veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship. However, under Antoninus Pius , citizenship was no longer granted to the children of rank-and-file veterans, the privilege becoming restricted only to officers. Veterans often went into business in
19050-507: The wording "chosen as father and lord" applied to conquered army groups and burhs, not relations with other kings. In his view: Edward continued Æthelflæd's policy of founding burhs in the north-west, at Thelwall and Manchester in 919, and Cledematha ( Rhuddlan ) at the mouth of the River Clwyd in North Wales in 921. Nothing is known of his relations with the Mercians between 919 and
19200-507: The younger son, Æthelweard , was given a scholarly education, including learning Latin. This would usually suggest that he was intended for the church, but it is unlikely in Æthelweard's case as he later had sons. There were also an unknown number of children who died young. Neither part of Edward's name, which means "protector of wealth", had been used previously by the West Saxon royal house, and Barbara Yorke suggests that he may have been named after his maternal grandmother Eadburh, reflecting
19350-513: Was Æthelred Mucel , Ealdorman of the Gaini , and her mother, Eadburh, was a member of the Mercian royal family. Alfred and Ealhswith had five children who survived childhood. The oldest was Æthelflæd , who married Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians , and ruled as Lady of the Mercians after his death. Edward was next, and the second daughter, Æthelgifu , became abbess of Shaftesbury . The third daughter, Ælfthryth , married Baldwin, Count of Flanders , and
19500-423: Was 8 men or fewer. The centurion , or company commander, had a double-sized tent for his quarters, which served also as official company area. Other than there, the men had to find other places to be. To avoid mutiny, it was important for the officers to keep them busy. A covered portico might protect the walkway along the tents. If barracks had been constructed, one company was housed in one barracks building, with
19650-513: Was a geometric exercise conducted by experienced officers called metatores , who used graduated measuring rods called decempedae ("10-footers") and gromatici who used a groma , a sighting device consisting of a vertical staff with horizontal cross pieces and vertical plumb-lines. Ideally the process started in the centre of the planned camp at the site of the headquarters tent or building ( principia ). Streets and other features were marked with coloured pennants or rods. Richardson writes that from
19800-430: Was admired by medieval chroniclers, and in the view of William of Malmesbury , he was "much inferior to his father in the cultivation of letters" but "incomparably more glorious in the power of his rule". He was largely ignored by modern historians until the 1990s, and Nick Higham described him as "perhaps the most neglected of English kings", partly because few primary sources for his reign survive. His reputation rose in
19950-598: Was also used by Spanish colonizers in America following strict rules by the Spanish monarchy for founding new cities in the New World . Many of the towns of England still retain forms of the word castra in their names, usually as the suffixes "-caster", "-cester" or "-chester" – Lancaster , Tadcaster , Worcester , Gloucester , Mancetter , Uttoxeter , Colchester , Chester , Manchester and Ribchester for example. Castle has
20100-447: Was born about 894. According to Asser in his Life of King Alfred , Edward and Ælfthryth were educated at court by male and female tutors, and read ecclesiastical and secular works in English, such as the Psalms and Old English poems . They were taught the courtly qualities of gentleness and humility, and Asser wrote that they were obedient to their father and friendly to visitors. This is
20250-473: Was eventually murdered by Allectus , one of his aides, in 293, and Britain was finally taken back by 296. While some of the Saxon Shore forts were built under previous commanders and emperors, some were built by Carausius during his revolt and evidence suggests that Portus Adurni was built during this time; many of the coins uncovered at the site were minted by Carausius as emperor during his revolt. Even after
20400-500: Was first used in Wulfstan 's Life of St Æthelwold at the end of the tenth century, to distinguish him from King Edward the Martyr . Edward had about fourteen children from three marriages. Edward first married Ecgwynn around 893. Their children were: Around 900, he married Ælfflæd , daughter of Ealdorman Æthelhelm, probably of Wiltshire . Their children were: Edward married for
20550-563: Was forced to buy them off. He encouraged Englishmen to purchase land in Danish territory, and two charters survive relating to estates in Bedfordshire and Derbyshire . In 909, Edward sent a combined West Saxon and Mercian army which harassed the Northumbrian Danes, and seized the bones of the Northumbrian royal saint Oswald from Bardney Abbey in Lincolnshire . Oswald was translated to
20700-469: Was greatly beloved at Winchester Cathedral; and one reason for Edward's moving his father's body into the new family shrine next door was that he was surer of sincere prayers there." The standard of Anglo-Saxon learning declined severely in the ninth century, particularly in Wessex, and Mercian scholars such as Plegmund played a major part in the revival of learning initiated by Alfred. Mercians were prominent at
20850-516: Was ignored in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in her husband's lifetime, but emerged from obscurity when her son acceded. This may be because she supported her son against her husband. Alfred died on 26 October 899 and Edward succeeded to the throne, but Æthelwold disputed the succession. He seized the royal estates of Wimborne , symbolically important as the place where his father was buried, and Christchurch , both in Dorset . Edward marched with his army to
21000-421: Was increasing confusion in the period as to what was really bookland; Edward urged prompt settlement in bookland and folkland disputes, and his legislation established that jurisdiction belonged to the king and his officers. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , there was a general submission of rulers in Britain to Edward in 920: This passage was regarded as a straightforward report by most historians until
21150-401: Was inherited by Edward with the support of Mercians at the West Saxon court, of whom the most important was Plegmund , Archbishop of Canterbury. In 903 Edward issued several charters concerning land in Mercia. Three of them are witnessed by the Mercian leaders and their daughter Ælfwynn , and they all contain a statement that Æthelred and Æthelflæd "then held rulership and power over the race of
21300-405: Was joined by King Æthelred of Wessex and his brother, the future Alfred the Great , for a combined attack on the Vikings, who refused an engagement; in the end the Mercians bought peace with them. The following year, the Danes conquered East Anglia, and in 874 they expelled King Burgred and, with their support, Ceolwulf became the last King of Mercia. In 877 the Vikings partitioned Mercia, taking
21450-566: Was next to Winchester Cathedral, which became known as the Old Minster while Edward's foundation was called the New Minster . It was much larger than the Old Minster, and was probably intended as a royal mausoleum. It acquired relics of the Breton Saint Judoc , which probably arrived in England from Ponthieu in 901, and the body of one of Alfred's closest advisers, Grimbald , who died in
21600-500: Was on this occasion that the king acquired land from the Bishop of Winchester for the foundation of the New Minster, Winchester. No charters survive for the period from 910 to the king's death in 924, much to the puzzlement and distress of historians. Charters were usually issued when the king made grants of land, and it is possible that Edward followed a policy of retaining property which came into his hands to help finance his campaigns against
21750-407: Was quadrangular, aligned on the cardinal points of the compass. The construction crews dug a trench ( fossa ), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart ( agger ). On top of this a palisade of stakes ( sudes or valli ) was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march. Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a brick or stone wall, and
21900-471: Was stronger in the East Midlands than in East Anglia. Three Welsh kings, Hywel Dda , Clydog and Idwal Foel , who had previously been subject to Æthelflæd, now gave their allegiance to Edward. The principal currency in later Anglo-Saxon England was the silver penny , and some coins carried a stylised portrait of the king. Edward's coins had "EADVVEARD REX" on the obverse and the name of the moneyer on
22050-408: Was the garment of soldiers. Every camp included "main street", which ran through the camp in a north–south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called cardo or cardus maximus . This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps. Typically "main street" was the via principalis . The central portion
22200-546: Was to be an important factor in English resistance to the Vikings. In 865, the Danish Viking Great Heathen Army landed in East Anglia and used this as a starting point for an invasion. The East Anglians were forced to pay off the Vikings, who invaded Northumbria the following year. They appointed a puppet king in 867, and then moved on Mercia, where they spent the winter of 867–868. King Burgred of Mercia
22350-424: Was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The "headquarters" building was called the praetorium because it housed the praetor or base commander ("first officer"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of consul or proconsul but officers of lesser ranks might command. On one side of the praetorium was the quaestorium , the building of the quaestor (supply officer). On
22500-574: Was used for fortlets, typically occupied by a detachment of a cohort or a centuria . Castrum appears in Oscan and Umbrian , two other Italic languages , suggesting an origin at least as old as Proto-Italic language . Julius Pokorny traces a probable derivation from *k̂es-, schneiden ("cut") in *k̂es-tro-m, Schneidewerkzeug ("cutting tool"). These Italic reflexes based on *kastrom include Oscan castrous ( genitive case ) and Umbrian castruo , kastruvuf ( accusative case ). They have
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