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148-685: In the middle of the 19th century, the Central Peninsular Railway Company of Portugal , which had been contracted to build a railway link between Lisbon and Spain , was encountering technical and financial difficulties, which was delaying the project considerably; the English businessman Samuel Morton Peto , who was managing the works, was commissioned to form a new company to replace the Central Peninsular Railway Company of Portugal, but without success, and his contract

296-637: A Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on

444-564: A cautious French probe into the Saarland . The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to

592-400: A deep impression on its collective psyche. Voltaire wrote a long poem, Poême sur le désastre de Lisbonne , shortly after the quake, and mentioned it in his 1759 novel Candide (indeed, many argue that this critique of optimism was inspired by that earthquake). Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. also mentions it in his 1857 poem, The Deacon's Masterpiece, or The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay . After

740-700: A global city, and it is also home to three companies in the Global 2000 ( EDP Group , Galp Energia and Jerónimo Martins ). Lisbon is one of the major economic centres in Europe , with a growing financial sector, with PSI-20 being part of Euronext , the largest center for debt and funds listings in the world. The Lisbon region has a higher GDP PPP per capita than any other region in Portugal. Its GDP PPP amounts to US$ 179 billion and thus $ 61,713 per capita. When it comes to working and employment conditions, Lisbon has some of

888-424: A high level of "youth emigration" mostly to other European cities of countries as France, UK, Luxembourg, Switzerland and Belgium. The city occupies the 40th place of highest gross earnings in the world and, with almost 21,000 millionaires, is the 11th European city by number of millionaires and the 14th by number of billionaires. Most of the headquarters of multinational corporations in Portugal are located in

1036-480: A major gateway for refugees to the U.S. and a haven for spies. More than 100,000 refugees were able to flee Nazi Germany via Lisbon. During the Estado Novo regime (1926–1974), Lisbon, under the influence of Duarte Pacheco , the minister of works, was expanded at the cost of other districts within the country, resulting in nationalist and monumental projects. New residential and public developments were constructed;

1184-514: A pretext to initiate the invasion. The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of

1332-765: A pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as

1480-474: A reduction in expenses, such as track maintenance and labour. On the other hand, new techniques and new means of traction were also studied, such as diesel locomotives and railcars . In 1932, the articles of association were amended and the company became an S.A. During the Second World War , there was a shortage of coal, which again led to a reduction in services. Even so, in 1940, the company started

1628-469: A secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of

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1776-585: A series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, most notably the Visigoths . Later it was captured by the Moors in the 8th century. In 1147, Afonso Henriques conquered the city and in 1255, it became Portugal's capital, replacing Coimbra . It has since been the political, economic, and cultural centre of the country. As the political centre of the country, Lisbon hosts the government , National Assembly , Supreme Court of Justice , Armed Forces and residence of

1924-743: A similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . In June 1940,

2072-435: A supposed ancient Phoenician term Alis-Ubbo , meaning "safe harbour" or "pleasant haven". Although modern archaeological excavations show Phoenician presence at this location since 1200   BC, this folk etymology completely lacks any evidence and "is never attested in ancient classical literature". Lisbon's name is commonly abbreviated as "LX" or "Lx", originating in an antiquated spelling of Lisbon as Lixbõa . While

2220-400: A triumphal arch (1873) and a monument to King Joseph I . In the first years of the 19th century, Portugal was invaded by the troops of Napoléon Bonaparte , forcing Queen Maria I and Prince-Regent John (future John VI) to flee temporarily to Brazil. By the time the new King returned to Lisbon, many of the buildings and properties were pillaged, sacked or destroyed by the invaders. During

2368-519: A two-front war, as it had in World War   I. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as

2516-519: Is located at 38°42′49.75″N 9°8′21.79″W  /  38.7138194°N 9.1393861°W  / 38.7138194; -9.1393861 , situated at the mouth of the Tagus River and is the westernmost capital of a mainland European country. The river delta is inverted . The westernmost part of Lisbon is occupied by the Monsanto Forest Park , a 10 km (4 sq mi) urban park, one of

2664-513: Is one of the oldest cities in the world and the second-oldest European capital city (after Athens ), predating other modern European capitals by centuries. Settled by pre-Celtic tribes and later founded and civilized by the Phoenicians, Julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia , adding the term to the name Olissipo . After the fall of the Roman Empire , it was ruled by

2812-624: Is still visible in the Alfama district, an old quarter of Lisbon that survived the 1755 Lisbon earthquake : many place-names are derived from Arabic and the Alfama (the oldest existing district of Lisbon) was derived from the Arabic " al-hamma " . For a brief time, Lisbon was an independent Muslim kingdom known as the Taifa of Lisbon (1022–1094), before being conquered by the larger Taifa of Badajoz . In 1108 Lisbon

2960-458: The 10 most populous urban areas in the European Union . It represents approximately 27.83% of the country's population. Lisbon is recognised as an alpha-level global city because of its importance in finance, commerce, fashion, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education, and tourism. Lisbon is amongst the two Portuguese cities (the other being Porto ) to be recognised as

3108-588: The Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. This pact had

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3256-609: The Avenida da Liberdade , as the city grew farther from the Tagus. Lisbon was the site of the regicide of Carlos I of Portugal in 1908, an event which culminated two years later in the establishment of the First Republic. The city refounded its university in 1911 after centuries of inactivity in Lisbon, incorporating reformed former colleges and other non-university higher education schools of

3404-662: The British Empire , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and naval Battle of the Atlantic . Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much of continental Europe and formed the Axis alliance with Italy , Japan , and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis in an invasion of

3552-565: The Companhia dos Caminhos de Ferro do Norte de Portugal [Northern Portugal Railway Company], and the Corgo and Sabor line to the Companhia Nacional de Caminhos de Ferro [National Railway Company]. In 1929, the company's growth trend was reversed due to competition from road transport. In the 1930s, there was a decline in transport, initially only for passengers, and then for goods, which forced

3700-523: The English Armada led by Francis Drake , while Queen Elizabeth supported a Portuguese pretender in Antonio, Prior of Crato , but support for Crato was lacking and the expedition was a failure. The Portuguese Restoration War , which began with a coup d'état organised by the nobility and bourgeoisie in Lisbon and executed on 1 December 1640, restored Portuguese independence. The period from 1640 to 1668

3848-455: The Far East and later, Brazil , and acquired great riches by exploiting the trade in spices, slaves, sugar, textiles and other goods. This period saw the rise of the exuberant Manueline style in architecture, which left its mark in many 16th-century monuments (including Lisbon's Belém Tower and Jerónimos Monastery , which were declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites ). A description of Lisbon in

3996-566: The German Revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into

4144-814: The German invasion of Poland and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor , who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and

4292-567: The Italian mainland , and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France at Normandy , while the Soviet Union regained its territorial losses and pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled

4440-537: The Japanese Navy and captured key islands . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories ; the invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops; Hitler's suicide ; and the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of the Potsdam Declaration ,

4588-682: The League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to

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4736-723: The Michelin Gala . On 11 July 2018, the Aga Khan officially chose the Henrique de Mendonça Palace, located on Rua Marquês de Fronteira, as the Divan , or seat, of the global Nizari Muslim Imamate . Lisbon hosted World Youth Day 2023 in August of that year, attracting Catholic youth from the around the world. Pope Francis led several events, with the final mass held in the city's Parque do Tejo having an estimated 1.5 million attendees. Lisbon

4884-621: The NATO summit (19–20 November 2010), a summit meeting that is regarded as a periodic opportunity for Heads of State and Heads of Government of NATO member states to evaluate and provide strategic direction for Alliance activities. The city hosts the Web Summit and is the head office for the Group of Seven Plus (G7+) . In 2018 it hosted the Eurovision Song Contest for the first time as well as

5032-693: The Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against

5180-556: The Norte line , completed in 1956. In 1959, the company contracted the Ericsson company for the installation of centralised traffic control on the Vendas Novas line . In 1966, new articles of association were published for the company and electrification between Lisbon and Porto was completed; in 1968, a contract was signed with a consortium of SOMAFEL and Somapre for the total renovation of

5328-677: The Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China as

5476-545: The Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all the world's countries —including all the great powers —participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit of total war , blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources. Tanks and aircraft played major roles , with

5624-581: The Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that

5772-580: The Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact

5920-523: The Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed

6068-428: The Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with

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6216-466: The Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded

6364-506: The Treaty of Craiova . The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war. In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which

6512-401: The United Kingdom and France to declare war on Germany. Poland was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , in which they had agreed on " spheres of influence " in Eastern Europe. In 1940, the Soviets annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and

6660-426: The Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and

6808-451: The aftermath of World War I and the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events leading up to the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria , the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War , and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , prompting

6956-436: The head of state . It is also the centre of Portuguese diplomacy, with ambassadors from 86 countries residing in the city, as well as representations from Taiwan and Palestine . About 2.96 million people live in the Lisbon metropolitan area , which extends beyond the city's administrative area, making it the third largest metropolitan area in the Iberian Peninsula (after Madrid and Barcelona ) as well as figuring amongst

7104-472: The metropolis . Lisbon is mainland Europe 's westernmost capital city (second overall after Reykjavik ) and the only one along the Atlantic coast, the others (Reykjavik and Dublin ) being on islands. The city lies in the western portion of the Iberian Peninsula , on the northern shore of the River Tagus . The western portion of its metro area, the Portuguese Riviera , hosts the westernmost point of Continental Europe , culminating at Cabo da Roca . Lisbon

7252-404: The reunification of East and West Germany to take place and resolved most post–World War   II issues. No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. World War I had radically altered

7400-458: The urban heat island of the city centre, with Sintra and Setúbal having reached −4 °C (25 °F) and −5.1 °C (23 °F) respectively, both experiencing about 13 days of frost per year on average. The highest temperature ever recorded in Lisbon was 44.0 °C (111.2 °F) on 4 August 2018. Second World War Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War II or

7548-423: The 14th century, five in the 16th century (including the 1531 earthquake that destroyed 1,500 houses and the 1597 earthquake in which three streets vanished), and three in the 17th century. On 1 November 1755, the city was destroyed by another devastating earthquake , which killed an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 Lisbon residents of a population estimated at between 200,000 and 275,000, and destroyed 85 percent of

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7696-412: The 16th century was written by Damião de Góis and published in 1554. The succession crisis of 1580, initiated a sixty-year period of dual monarchy in Portugal and Spain under the Spanish Habsburgs . This is referred to as the "Philippine Dominion" ( Domínio Filipino ), since all three Spanish kings during that period were called Philip ( Filipe ). In 1589, Lisbon was the target of an incursion by

7844-434: The 1755 earthquake, the city was rebuilt largely according to the plans of Prime Minister Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo , the 1st Marquis of Pombal ; the lower town began to be known as the Baixa Pombalina ( Pombaline central district ). Instead of rebuilding the medieval town, Pombal decided to demolish what remained after the earthquake and rebuild the city centre in accordance with principles of modern urban design. It

7992-410: The 1990s, many of the districts were renovated and projects in the historic quarters were established to modernise those areas, for instance, architectural and patrimonial buildings were renovated, the northern margin of the Tagus was re-purposed for leisure and residential use, the Vasco da Gama Bridge was constructed and the eastern part of the municipality was re-purposed for Expo '98 to commemorate

8140-400: The 19th century, the Liberal movement introduced new changes into the urban landscape. The principal areas were in the Baixa and along the Chiado district, where shops, tobacconists shops, cafés, bookstores, clubs and theatres proliferated. The development of industry and commerce determined the growth of the city, seeing the transformation of the Passeio Público , a Pombaline era park, into

8288-444: The 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population, thus giving rise to Celtic-speaking local tribes such as the Cempsi or Sefes . Although the first fortifications on Lisbon's Castelo hill are known to be no older than the 2nd century BC, recent archaeological finds have shown that Iron Age people occupied the site from the 8th to 6th centuries BC. This indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with

8436-405: The 22nd of the same month, and the company was formally incorporated on 11 May 1860, although the decree making this official was only published on 20 June. On 25 June 1865, the Royal Company acquired the rights to operate the Norte line from José de Salamanca . On 10 November, the public deed was approved, and the section already built, between Lisbon and the Asseca Railway Bridge , passed to

8584-431: The 500th anniversary of Vasco da Gama 's sea voyage to India, a voyage that would bring immense riches to Lisbon and cause many of Lisbon's landmarks to be built. In 1988, a fire in the historical district of Chiado saw the destruction of many 18th-century Pombaline style buildings. A series of restoration works has brought the area back to its former self and made it a high-scale shopping district. The Lisbon Agenda

8732-409: The Allies were attempting to cut off . Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10   May 1940. On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent

8880-400: The Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack

9028-421: The Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27   May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . In November 1939,

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9176-418: The Companhia dos Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses. In 1947, this company began operating all the broad and narrow gauge lines in Portugal, except for the Cascais line , which had been leased to Sociedade Estoril until 1976. However, there was a sharp drop in revenue and in 1950 the company was forced to take out a loan of 50 million escudos . The following year, the single contract came into force, reorganising

9324-400: The Company. In January 1902, one of the locomotives ordered by the company from Fives-Lille to provide fast services had already arrived and was being assembled that month in the workshops in Lisbon . The 1901 report, presented that same month, stated that the company's financial situation was quite favourable, mainly due to the fall in coal prices. After the 5 October 1910 Revolution ,

9472-417: The Emperor; a large necropolis under Praça da Figueira ; a large forum and other buildings such as insulae (multi-storied apartment buildings) in the area between Castle Hill and the historic city core. Many of these ruins were first unearthed during the mid-18th century (when the recent discovery of Pompeii made Roman archaeology fashionable among Europe's upper classes). The city prospered as piracy

9620-405: The European Axis declaring war on the US. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the naval Battle of Midway ; Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and

9768-410: The French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed

9916-426: The Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6   October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of

10064-409: The Islamic world, primarily Muslim Spain and North Africa . All mosques were either destroyed or altered and converted into churches. As a result of the end of Muslim rule in the mid-12th century, spoken Arabic quickly lost its place in Lisbon, and disappeared altogether. With its central location, Lisbon became the capital city of the new Portuguese territory in 1255. The first Portuguese university

10212-434: The Lisbon area. Lisbon's name may derive from Proto-Celtic or Celtic Olisippo , Lissoppo , or a similar name which other visiting ancient peoples such as the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans adapted accordingly, such as the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus River, Lisso or Lucio . Classical authors writing in Latin and Greek, including Strabo , Solinus , and Martianus Capella , referred to popular legends that

10360-450: The Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War   II but generally favoured the Axis . His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . In July 1937, Japan captured

10508-410: The Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects. Archaeological excavations made near the Castle of São Jorge ( Castelo de São Jorge ) and Lisbon Cathedral indicate a Phoneician presence at this location since 1200 BC, and it can be stated with confidence that a Phoenician trading post stood on a site now the centre of the present city, on

10656-600: The Royal Company of Portuguese Railways was transformed that year into the Portuguese Railway Company. After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, there was a sharp rise in coal prices, which led the company to reduce services and use firewood to power its locomotives, which caused several problems with the maintenance of rolling stock. That year was also marked by several general strikes by railway workers, with serious acts of sabotage taking place which led to

10804-505: The Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged

10952-584: The Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to

11100-835: The Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed to dominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific , and by 1937 was at war with the Republic of China . In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan, and

11248-621: The Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed

11396-738: The Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued

11544-402: The US dropped the first atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminent invasion of the Japanese archipelago , the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Soviet declaration of war against Japan and its invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 , marking

11692-568: The United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced

11840-489: The United Kingdom attacked on 3   July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The air Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in

11988-455: The United Kingdom. The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14   June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which

12136-640: The United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow "cash and carry" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in

12284-590: The Yellow River ; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan , but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with

12432-534: The average sea temperature is around 20 °C (68 °F). Among European capitals, Lisbon ranks among those with the warmest winters and has the mildest winter nights out of any major European city, with a minimum mean of 8.2 °C (46.8 °F) in the coldest month. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Lisbon was −1.2 °C (30 °F) in February 1956; although other locations in its metropolitan area can record lower temperatures, not being as affected by

12580-502: The capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese . In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by the Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding

12728-481: The city (such as the Escola Politécnica – now Faculdade de Ciências ). Today there are two public universities in the city ( University of Lisbon and New University of Lisbon ), a public university institute ( ISCTE - Lisbon University Institute ) and a polytechnic institute (IPL – Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa ). During World War II , Lisbon was one of the very few neutral, open European Atlantic ports,

12876-561: The city of Lisbon was founded by the mythical hero Ulysses ( Odysseus ). Lisbon's name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela , a native of Hispania . It was later referred to as "Olisippo" by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo (Ὀλισσιπών) or Olissipona (Ὀλισσιπόνα). Another claim repeated in historical literature is that the name of Lisbon could originate from

13024-520: The city's structures. Among several important buildings of the city, the Ribeira Palace and the Hospital Real de Todos os Santos were lost. In coastal areas, such as Peniche , situated about 80 km (50 mi) north of Lisbon, many people were killed by the following tsunami . By 1755, Lisbon was one of the largest cities in Europe; the catastrophic event shocked the whole of Europe and left

13172-564: The closure of the workshops at the Entroncamento in 1922, which had a detrimental effect on motor equipment. On 11 May 1927, it won the tender to lease the operation of the Portuguese government's rail links, which until then had been managed by the operator Caminhos de Ferro do Estado [State Railways], and due to its lack of experience in managing narrow-gauge lines, it sublet the Tâmega line to

13320-528: The company was nationalised, although in practice this process didn't have much effect, since the company was already almost completely subordinated to the government, giving birth to its successor, Comboios de Portugal , on 15 April 1975. Lisbon Lisbon ( / ˈ l ɪ z b ən / LIZ -bən ; Portuguese : Lisboa [liʒˈβoɐ] ) is the capital and largest city of Portugal , with an estimated population of 567,131 as of 2023 within its administrative limits and 2,961,177 within

13468-403: The conflict well into 1941. In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it

13616-515: The creation of a " New Roman Empire ". Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 when Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of

13764-739: The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War   I , irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of

13912-512: The diverse population of Muwallads , Arabs , Berbers , Mozarabs , Saqaliba , and Jews to maintain their socio-cultural lifestyles. Mozarabic was the native language spoken by most of the Christian population although Arabic was widely known as spoken by all religious communities. Islam was the official religion practised by the Arabs, Berbers, Saqaliba and Muwallad. The ancient Muslim influence

14060-637: The end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied

14208-463: The end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming

14356-498: The expropriation of their property. In 1506, an anti-semitic movement among the Old Christians of Lisbon culminated in a massacre lasting four days in which some 1,000 to 4,000 New Christian men, women and children, converted descendants of Sephardic Jews , are estimated to have been killed. The king was at Évora when these events occurred, but angered when he received the news, he ordered an investigation which resulted in two of

14504-563: The fast “ Flecha de Prata ” service between Lisbon and Porto . In 1945, Law no. 2008 on the coordination of land transport was published, which determined the concentration of all railway operating concessions in a single company; The following year, a deed was signed for the transition of the Portuguese Railways of Beira Alta , Nacional de Caminhos de Ferro and Portuguese Company for the Construction and Operation of Railways into

14652-566: The first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe and Hebei , until

14800-843: The former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , and fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan . Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing

14948-451: The highest temperature during the day typically ranges from 11 to 19 °C (52 to 66 °F), the lowest temperature at night ranges from 3 to 13 °C (37 to 55 °F) and the average sea temperature is 16 °C (61 °F). In the warmest month – August – the highest temperature during the day typically ranges from 25 to 32 °C (77 to 90 °F), the lowest temperature at night ranges from 14 to 20 °C (57 to 68 °F) and

15096-546: The highly unstable and corrupt Portuguese First Republic . The 6 June 1926 revolution ended the first republic and firmly established the Estado Novo , or the Portuguese Second Republic , as the ruling regime. The Carnation Revolution , which took place on 25 April 1974, ended the right-wing Estado Novo regime and reformed the country to become as it is today, the Portuguese Third Republic . In

15244-602: The hinterland. The city was connected by a broad road to Western Hispania's two other large cities, Bracara Augusta in the province of Tarraconensis (Portuguese Braga ), and Emerita Augusta , the capital of Lusitania . The city was ruled by an oligarchical council dominated by two families, the Julii and the Cassiae, although regional authority was administered by the Roman Governor of Emerita or directly by Emperor Tiberius . Among

15392-525: The instigating friars being excommunicated and burned alive. Most of the Portuguese expeditions of the Age of Discovery set out from Lisbon during the period from the end of the 15th century to the beginning of the 17th century, including Vasco da Gama 's expedition to India in 1498. The following years of the 16th century began Lisbon's golden era: the city was the European hub of commerce between Africa , India ,

15540-512: The invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana , or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of

15688-433: The largest in Europe, and occupying 10% of the municipality. The city occupies an area of 100.05 km (39 sq mi), and its city boundaries, unlike those of most major cities, coincide with those of the municipality. The rest of the urbanised area of the Lisbon urban area, known generically as Greater Lisbon ( Portuguese : Grande Lisboa ) includes several administratively defined cities and municipalities, in

15836-622: The last centuries of the Middle Ages, Lisbon expanded substantially and became an important trading post with both Northern European and Mediterranean cities. When the Spaniards expelled the Jews from Spanish territory, many of them fled to Lisbon. Although acknowledging the central importance of the Jews to the city's prosperity, Manuel I decreed in 1497 that all Jews must convert to Christianity, only those who refused being forced to leave, but not before

15984-726: The latter enabling the strategic bombing of population centres and delivery of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II was the deadliest conflict in history, resulting in 70 to 85 million deaths , more than half being civilians. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust of European Jews, as well as from massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and war crimes tribunals were conducted against German and Japanese leaders . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in

16132-432: The lowest wages and purchasing power among European capitals. Energy (electricity, gas and fuel), along with supermarkets, housing, and various government taxes, rank among the most expensive, even compared to the richest EU countries. The gap between the highest and lowest wages is, again, the largest inside the "Euro Zone". The lowest wages can offer a value per hour as little as 6-7 euros. Due to these reasons Lisbon has had

16280-522: The majority of Latin speakers lived a large minority of Greek traders and slaves. Olissipo, like most great cities in the Western Empire, was a center for the dissemination of Christianity. Its first attested Bishop was Potamius (c. 356), and there were several martyrs during the period of persecution of the Christians: Verissimus, Maxima, and Julia are the most significant examples. By

16428-523: The management of rail transport and changing the company's statutes. Even so, the company managed to make a number of investments, supported by the First Development Plan (1953-1958), in order to modernise its services; of particular note was the inaugural trip of the fast Foguete service in 1953, and the electrification projects for the Sintra line and the section between Lisbon and Carregado on

16576-531: The need to order an army intervention. After the end of the First World War, operating problems remained due to rising prices, to which the operators responded by issuing surcharges. Coal, in particular, remained scarce and overpriced, so the use of firewood in locomotives continued. On the other hand, social problems also continued, aggravated by new measures such as the introduction of the 8-hour working day, which led to various conflicts and strikes, such as

16724-528: The north bank of the Tagus River. The larger Lisbon metropolitan area includes the Setúbal Peninsula to the south. Lisbon has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ) with mild, rainy winters and warm to hot, dry summers. The average annual temperature is 17.4 °C (63.3 °F), 21.3 °C (70.3 °F) during the day and 13.5 °C (56.3 °F) at night. In the coldest month – January –

16872-456: The old spelling has since been completely dropped from usage and goes against modern language standards, the abbreviation is still commonly used. During the Neolithic period, the region was inhabited by Pre-Celtic tribes, who built religious and funerary monuments, megaliths , dolmens and menhirs , which still survive in areas on the periphery of Lisbon. The Indo-European Celts invaded in

17020-583: The pacification of the west, led by Consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus . Decimus obtained the alliance of Olissipo (which sent men to fight alongside the Roman Legions against the northwestern Celtic tribes) by integrating it into the empire, as the Municipium Cives Romanorum Felicitas Julia . Local authorities were granted self-rule over a territory that extended 50 km (31 mi); exempt from taxes, its citizens were given

17168-497: The permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the Cold War . In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and Asia . Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939 with

17316-571: The political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary , Germany , Bulgaria , and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of

17464-583: The port of Tobruk . By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at

17612-660: The privileges of Roman citizenship, and it was then integrated with the Roman province of Lusitania (whose capital was Emerita Augusta ). Lusitanian raids and rebellions during Roman occupation required the construction of a wall around the settlement. During Augustus ' reign, the Romans also built a great theatre; the Cassian Baths (underneath Rua da Prata ); temples to Jupiter , Diana , Cybele , Tethys and Idea Phrygiae (an uncommon cult from Asia Minor ), in addition to temples to

17760-801: The region of Lisbon until 585. In 585, the Suebi Kingdom was integrated into the Germanic Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo, which comprised all of the Iberian Peninsula: Lisbon was then called Ulishbona . On 6 August 711, Lisbon was taken by the Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate . These conquerors built many mosques and houses, rebuilt the city wall (known as the Cerca Moura ) and established administrative control, while permitting

17908-407: The remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig ,

18056-514: The sale of the Lusitanian horses renowned in antiquity. According to a persistent legend, the location was named for the Greek mythical king of Ithaca, Ulysses , who founded the city when he sailed westward to the ends of the known world. Following the defeat of Hannibal in 202 BC during the Punic wars , the Romans determined to deprive Carthage of its most valuable possession: Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula). The defeat of Carthaginian forces by Scipio Africanus in Eastern Hispania allowed

18204-410: The significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . The German Empire was dissolved in

18352-405: The southern slope of the Castle hill. The sheltered harbour in the Tagus River estuary was an ideal spot for an Iberian settlement and would have provided a secure harbour for unloading and provisioning trading ships. The Tagus settlement was an important centre of commercial trade with the inland tribes, providing an outlet for the valuable metals, salt and salted-fish they collected, and for

18500-447: The start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed

18648-415: The strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics,

18796-430: The time of the Fall of Rome , Olissipo had become a notable Christian center. Following the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, there were barbarian invasions; between 409 and 429 the city was occupied successively by Sarmatians , Alans and Vandals . The Germanic Suebi , who established a kingdom in Gallaecia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), with its capital in Bracara Augusta , also controlled

18944-501: The time, was returned to Christian rule. The reconquest of Portugal and re-establishment of Christianity is one of the most significant events in Lisbon's history, described in the chronicle Expugnatione Lyxbonensi , which describes, among other incidents, how the local bishop was killed by the crusaders and the city's residents prayed to the Virgin Mary as it happened. Some of the Muslim residents converted to Roman Catholicism and most of those who did not convert fled to other parts of

19092-463: The track. In 1973, Decree-Law no. 104/73 was published, authorising the Minister of Communications to establish a new concession contract with the Portuguese Railway Company. The Company's situation changed profoundly after the Carnation Revolution , with several inspections revealing serious labour problems, hidden by the organization, which had to be resolved, with damaging effects on the Company's already unstable financial capacity. This situation

19240-415: The two wars became World War II in 1941. Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War   II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. Others view the Spanish Civil War as

19388-407: The war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising

19536-475: The war. Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland ; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, which

19684-404: The west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to

19832-483: The world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed

19980-426: The zone of Belém was modified for the 1940 Portuguese Exhibition , while along the periphery new districts appeared to house the growing population. The inauguration of the bridge over the Tagus allowed a rapid connection between both sides of the river. Lisbon was the site of three revolutions in the 20th century. The first, the 5 October 1910 revolution , brought an end to the Portuguese monarchy and established

20128-554: Was invaded by Germany. The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to

20276-417: Was a European Union agreement on measures to revitalise the EU economy, signed in Lisbon in March 2000. In October 2007 Lisbon hosted the 2007 EU Summit , where an agreement was reached regarding a new EU governance model. The resulting Treaty of Lisbon was signed on 13 December 2007 and came into force on 1 December 2009. Lisbon has been the site for many international events and programmes. In 1994, Lisbon

20424-408: Was eliminated and technological advances were introduced, consequently Felicitas Julia became a center of trade with the Roman provinces of Britannia (particularly Cornwall ) and the Rhine . Economically strong, Olissipo was known for its garum (a fish sauce highly prized by the elites of the empire and exported in amphorae to Rome), wine, salt, and horse-breeding, while Roman culture permeated

20572-443: Was founded in Lisbon in 1290 by King Denis I ; for many years the Studium Generale ( General Study ) was transferred intermittently to Coimbra , where it was installed permanently in the 16th century as the University of Coimbra . In 1384, the city was besieged by King Juan I of Castille , as a part of the ongoing 1383–1385 Crisis . The result of the siege was a victory for the Portuguese led by Nuno Álvares Pereira . During

20720-401: Was marked by periodic skirmishes between Portugal and Spain, as well as short episodes of more serious warfare until the Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 1668. In the early 18th century, gold from Brazil allowed King John V to sponsor the building of several Baroque churches and theatres in the city. Prior to the 18th century, Lisbon had experienced several significant earthquakes – eight in

20868-403: Was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. Finland refused to sign

21016-436: Was raided and occupied by Norwegian crusaders led by Sigurd I on their way to the Holy Land as part of the Norwegian Crusade and occupied by crusader forces for three years. It was taken by the Moorish Almoravids in 1111. In 1147, as part of Portuguese efforts during the Reconquista , Afonso I of Portugal besieged and reconquered Lisbon with the aid of crusader knights. The city, with around 154,000 residents at

21164-406: Was reconstructed in an open rectangular plan with two great squares: the Praça do Rossio and the Praça do Comércio . The first, the central commercial district, is the traditional gathering place of the city and the location of the older cafés, theatres and restaurants; the second became the city's main access to the River Tagus and point of departure and arrival for seagoing vessels, adorned by

21312-657: Was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with

21460-441: Was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed

21608-404: Was terminated on 6 June 1859. The government therefore drew up a new contract on 30 July with the Spanish businessman José de Salamanca y Mayol , who formed the Companhia Real dos Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses (Royal Company of Portuguese Railways) to build the rail link between the North Line and the East Line ; the company's articles of association were drawn up on 12 December and approved on

21756-399: Was the European Capital of Culture . On 3 November 2005, Lisbon hosted the MTV European Music Awards . On 7 July 2007, Lisbon held the ceremony of the "New 7 Wonders Of The World" election, in the Luz Stadium , with live transmission for millions of people all over the world. Every two years, Lisbon hosts the Rock in Rio Lisboa Music Festival, one of the largest in the world. Lisbon hosted

21904-452: Was worsened by the oil crisis of 1973 and 1979 , and by the new priorities of the democratic regime, which substantially reduced support for the company, with which it was only possible to carry out some track construction and maintenance work, such as the installation of the railway accesses to the Sines Industrial Complex, and to continue with the programme to replace steam engine equipment, which had begun around 30 years earlier. In 1975,

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