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113-708: Pope Alexander VI (born Rodrigo de Borja ; c. 1431 – 18 August 1503) ( epithet : Valentinus ("The Valencian ")) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 August 1492 until his death in 1503. Born into the prominent Borgia family in Xàtiva in the Kingdom of Valencia under the Crown of Aragon , Spain , Rodrigo studied law at the University of Bologna . He

226-460: A custos was given the more important roles of keeping the safety of the church, its relics, its treasure, and its archives, but was also responsible for the perception of capitationes , symbolic head-taxes that associated freemen with a religious institution. Altar societies were once commonly organised within most Catholic parish churches. Member duties vary according to circumstances, and in some instances include tasks that ordinarily fall within

339-554: A Papal legate to quell a revolt. Borgia was successful in his mission, and his uncle rewarded him with his appointment as vice-chancellor of the Holy Roman Church. The position of vice-chancellor was both incredibly powerful and lucrative, and Borgia held this post for 35 years until his own election to the papacy in 1492. At the end of 1457, Rodrigo Cardinal Borgia's elder brother, Pedro Luis Borgia, fell ill, so Rodrigo temporarily filled Pedro Luis' position as captain-general of

452-670: A centralized despotism. In this manner, he was able to take advantage of the defeat of the French in order to break the power of the Orsini. From that time on, Alexander was able to build himself an effective power base in the Papal States. Virginio Orsini , who had been captured by the Spanish, died a prisoner at Naples, and the Pope confiscated his property. The rest of the Orsini clan still held out, defeating

565-473: A certain benefice , and say that his duty was to care for the sacred vessels, vestments , lights, etc. Nowadays the sacristan is elected or appointed. The Cæremoniale Episcoporum prescribed that in cathedral and collegiate churches the sacristan should be a priest , and describes his duties in regard to the sacristy, the Blessed Eucharist , the baptismal font , the holy oils , the sacred relics ,

678-447: A few days later. Cesare, who "lay in bed, his skin peeling and his face suffused to a violet colour" as a consequence of certain drastic measures to save him, eventually recovered; but the aged Pontiff apparently had little chance. Burchard's Diary provides a few details of the pope's final illness and death at age 72: Epithet The word epithet also may refer to an abusive, defamatory, or derogatory word or phrase. This use

791-474: A few months, Farnese had become Borgia's new mistress. She was 15, and he was 58. Borgia continued to acquire new benefices with their large streams of income, including the bishopric of Majorca and Eger in Hungary. In 1492, Pope Innocent VIII died. Since Borgia was 61, this was likely his last chance to become pope. When his uncle Alonso de Borja ( bishop of Valencia ) was elected Pope Callixtus III, he "inherited"

904-417: A flattering summary of contemporary descriptions of Alexander, relating him to have been "of a medium complexion, with dark eyes and slightly full lips, of robust health"; in later life, he reports that "his aspect [was declared] to be venerable and far more august than an ordinary human appearance", and that he was "so familiar with Holy Writ , that his speeches were fairly sparkling with well-chosen texts of

1017-424: A focus on epithet as a smear word,' writes David Binder, my longtime Times colleague, 'which was still a synonym for 'delineation' or 'characterization' in my big 1942 Webster's but now seems to be almost exclusively a synonym for 'derogation' or 'smear word.' ... In the past century, [epithet] blossomed as 'a word of abuse,' today gleefully seized upon to describe political smears." Descriptive bynames were given to

1130-518: A hostage, to Charles VIII, and to give Charles Civitavecchia (16 January 1495). On 28 January Charles VIII departed for Naples with Cem and Cesare, but the latter slipped away to Spoleto . Neapolitan resistance collapsed, and Alfonso II fled and abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand II . Ferdinand was abandoned by all and also had to escape, and the Kingdom of Naples was conquered with surprising ease. A reaction against Charles VIII soon set in, for all

1243-565: A letter of condolence to the pope on the death of the Duke of Gandia; "Faith, most Holy Father, is the one and true source of peace and consolation... Faith alone brings consolation from a far-off country." But eventually the Florentines tired of the friar's moralising and the Florentine government condemned the reformer to death, executing him on 23 May 1498. The prominent Italian families looked down on

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1356-574: A message for the priest while serving in the sanctuary, it is given to the sexton to give to the priest or deacon. Many Christian-faith schools appoint sacristans as members of their prefect bodies, particularly in public schools and institutions founded on the English model. For instance, the University of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee, an Episcopal university, hosts a student Sacristans Guild. Sacristans aid

1469-477: A modifier from the animate to the inanimate; for example, "cheerful money" and "suicidal sky". Orators take special care when using epithets so as to not use them as smear words. Orators could be accused of racial or abusive epithets if used incorrectly. American journalist William Safire discussed the use of the word in a 2008 column in The New York Times : "'I am working on a piece about nationalism with

1582-476: A near-impossibility. Consequently, Borgia continued his previous strategy of positioning himself as kingmaker. This time, Borgia gathered the votes to make Francesco della Rovere (the uncle of future Borgia rival Giuliano della Rovere ) Pope Sixtus IV . Della Rovere's appeal was that he was a pious and brilliant Franciscan friar who lacked many political connections in Rome. He seemed to be the perfect cardinal to reform

1695-496: A new crusade. Before embarking to lead the crusade personally, Pope Pius II fell ill and died, so Borgia would need to ensure the election of yet another ally to the papacy to maintain his position as vice-chancellor. On the first ballot, the conclave of 1464 elected Borgia's friend Pietro Barbo as Pope Paul II . Borgia was in high standing with the new pope and retained his positions, including that of vice-chancellor. Paul II reversed some of his predecessor's reforms that diminished

1808-546: A peace treaty between Castile and Aragon and to solicit their support for another crusade. In 1472, Borgia was appointed to be the papal chamberlain until his departure to Spain. Borgia arrived in his native Aragon in the summer, reuniting with family and meeting with King Juan II and Prince Ferdinand. The pope gave Cardinal Borgia discretion over whether to give dispensation for Ferdinand 's marriage to his second cousin Isabella of Castile , and Borgia decided in favour of approving

1921-513: A person to distinguish them from other people of the same name. In England bynames were used during the period when the use of surnames had not been extensively adopted. As an example the Domesday Book of 1086 identifies 40 individuals with the given name of "Richard". Most (40%), such as "Richard of Coursey" are identified with a locational byname, indicating where they came from, or in some cases where they lived. Others (25%), such as "Richard

2034-422: A persuasive tactic. Orators have a variety of epithets that they can employ that have different meanings. The most common are fixed epithets and transferred epithets. A fixed epithet is the repetitive use of the same word or phrase for the same person or object. A transferred epithet qualifies a noun other than the person or thing it is describing. This is also known as a hypallage. This can often involve shifting

2147-465: A phenomenon with the syntax–semantics interface , because they have components of both, and also a pragmatic dimension. An epithet is linked to its noun by long-established usage. Not every adjective is an epithet. An epithet is especially recognizable when its function is largely decorative, such as if "cloud-gathering Zeus" is employed other than in reference to conjuring up a storm. "The epithets are decorative insofar as they are neither essential to

2260-467: A reference to the mythological place of birth or numinous presence at a specific sanctuary: sacrifice might be offered on one and the same occasion to Pythian Apollo ( Apollo Pythios ) and Delphic Apollo ( Apollo Delphinios ). A localizing epithet refers simply to a particular center of veneration and the cultic tradition there, as the god manifested at a particular festival, for example: Zeus Olympios, Zeus as present at Olympia, or Apollo Karneios, Apollo at

2373-674: A result, his Italianized Valencian surname, Borgia , became a byword for libertinism and nepotism , which are traditionally considered as characterizing his pontificate. Rodrigo de Borja was born c. 1431, in the town of Xàtiva near Valencia , one of the component realms of the Crown of Aragon , in what is now Spain. He was named for his paternal grandfather, Rodrigo Gil de Borja y Fennolet . His parents were Jofré Llançol i Escrivà (died bef. 24 March 1437) and his Aragonese wife and distant cousin Isabel de Borja y Cavanilles (died 19 October 1468), daughter of Juan Domingo de Borja y Doncel . He had

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2486-552: A short stay in Florence, set out for Rome (November 1494). Alexander appealed to Ascanio Sforza and even to the Ottoman Sultan Bayazid II for help. He tried to collect troops and put Rome in a state of defence, but his position was precarious. When the Orsini offered to admit the French to their castles, Alexander had no choice but to come to terms with Charles. On 31 December, Charles VIII entered Rome with his troops,

2599-518: A younger brother, Pedro . His family name is written Llançol in Valencian and Lanzol in Castillian . Rodrigo adopted his mother's family name of Borja in 1455 following the elevation to the papacy of maternal uncle Alonso de Borja (Italianized to Alfonso Borgia) as Calixtus III . His cousin and Calixtus's nephew Luis de Milà y de Borja became a cardinal. Gerard Noel writes that Rodrigo's father

2712-446: Is " Apollo , [as] leader of the Muses " and therefore patron of the arts and sciences, while Phoibos Apollo is the same deity, but as shining sun-god. " Athena protects the city as polias , oversees handicrafts as ergane , joins battle as promachos and grants victory as nike ." Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, such as

2825-414: Is also considered an epithet. The Greek term antonomasia , in rhetoric, means substituting any epithet or phrase for a proper name, as "Pelides", signifying the "son of Peleus", to identify Achilles . An opposite substitution of a proper name for some generic term is also sometimes called antonomasia , as a Cicero for an orator. The use of a father's name or ancestor's name, such as "Pelides" in

2938-543: Is criticized by Martin Manser and other proponents of linguistic prescription . H. W. Fowler noted in 1926 that " epithet is suffering a vulgarization that is giving it an abusive imputation." Epithets are sometimes attached to a person's name or appear in place of their name, as what might be described as a glorified nickname or sobriquet , and for this reason some linguists have argued that they should be considered as pronouns . It has also been argued that epithets are

3051-399: Is your present habit, but safely, quietly and modestly as becomes a religious, or until we make different arrangements. If you obey, as we hope you will, we for the time being suspend the operation of our former Brief so that you may live in peace in accordance with the dictates of your conscience. The hostility of Savonarola seems to have been political rather than personal, and the friar sent

3164-572: The epitheton Comes as companion of another (usually major) divinity. An epithet can even be meant for collective use, e.g., in Latin pilleati , "the felt hat-wearers" for the brothers Castor and Pollux . Some epithets resist explanation. Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and Christians of other churches practice the use of epithets in the veneration of Jesus (e.g., "Christ"; " Prince of Peace "; " The Good Shepherd "), of Mary, Mother of Jesus (e.g., " Mother of God "; " Panagia "), and of

3277-779: The Canary Islands in his papal bull Sicut dudum , which included the excommunication of all those who engaged in the slave trade with native chiefs there. A form of indentured servitude was allowed, being similar to a peasant's duty to his liege lord in Europe. In the wake of Columbus 's landing in the New World, Pope Alexander was asked by the Spanish monarchy to confirm their ownership of these newly found lands. The bulls issued by Pope Alexander VI: Eximiae devotionis (3 May 1493), Inter caetera (4 May 1493) and Dudum siquidem (23 September 1493), granted rights to Spain with respect to

3390-587: The Holy See ; only four were able career churchmen. On the death of Pope Innocent VIII on 25 July 1492, the three likely candidates for the Papacy were the 61-year-old Borgia, seen as an independent candidate, Ascanio Sforza for the Milanese, and Giuliano della Rovere , seen as a pro-French candidate. It was rumoured but not substantiated that Borgia succeeded in buying the largest number of votes and Sforza, in particular,

3503-513: The Kingdom of Valencia , Spain), military assistance to help him subjugate the feudal princelings of papal Romagna, and a princess bride, Charlotte of Albret from the Kingdom of Navarre . Alexander hoped that Louis XII's help would be more profitable to his house than that of Charles VIII had been. In spite of the remonstrances of Spain and of the Sforza, he allied himself with France in January 1499 and

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3616-568: The Old Testament , the office and duties of the sacristan are assigned to the Levites . 1 Chronicles 23-26 describes how David assigned them duties such as temple doorkeepers, guardians, singers and musicians. The under-sacristan is also mentioned in the Decretals . He was the assistant of the sacristan, was subject to the archdeacon and discharged duties very similar to those of the sacristan. By

3729-471: The "Infans Romanus" , Rodrigo and Bernardo, were of uncertain maternal parentage. His daughter Isabella was the great-great-grandmother of Pope Innocent X , who was therefore descended in a direct line from Alexander. While the explorers of Spain imposed a form of slavery called " encomienda " on the indigenous peoples they met in the New World, some popes had spoken out against the practice of slavery. In 1435, Pope Eugene IV had issued an attack on slavery in

3842-406: The "politics of equilibrium" did nothing but render the country unable to defend itself against a powerful invading force. Italy was shown to be very vulnerable to the predations of the powerful nation-states, France and Spain, that had forged themselves during the previous century. Alexander VI now followed the general tendency of all the princes of the day to crush the great feudatories and establish

3955-558: The Bald . The same epithet can be used repeatedly joined to different names, such as Alexander the Great as well as Constantine the Great . Other epithets can easily be omitted without serious risk of confusion and are therefore known as epitheton ornans . Thus, the classical Roman author Virgil systematically called his main hero pius Aeneas , the epithet being pius , meaning religiously observant, humble and wholesome, as well as calling

4068-457: The Borgias' power increased. Cesare then returned to Rome, where his father asked him to assist Goffredo in reducing the last Orsini strongholds; this he was unwilling to do, much to his father's annoyance; but he eventually marched out, captured Ceri and made peace with Giulio Orsini, who surrendered Bracciano . The war between France and Spain for the possession of Naples dragged on, and the pope

4181-537: The Church, and the perfect cardinal for Borgia to maintain his influence. Sixtus IV rewarded Borgia for his support by promoting him to cardinal-bishop and consecrating him as the Cardinal-Bishop of Albano , requiring Borgia's ordination as a priest. Borgia also received a lucrative abbey from the pope and remained vice-chancellor. At the end of the year, the pope appointed Borgia to be the papal legate for Spain to negotiate

4294-455: The Church. These nepotistic appointments were characteristic of the era. Each pope during this period found himself surrounded by the servants and retainers of his predecessors who often owed their loyalty to the family of the pontiff who had appointed them. In 1455, he inherited his uncle's post as bishop of Valencia, and Callixtus appointed him Dean of Santa Maria in Xàtiva. The following year, he

4407-559: The European powers were alarmed at his success. On 31 March 1495 the Holy League was formed between the pope, the emperor, Venice , Ludovico il Moro and Ferdinand of Spain . The League was ostensibly formed against the Turks, but in reality it was made to expel the French from Italy. Charles VIII had himself crowned King of Naples on 12 May, but a few days later began his retreat northward. He met

4520-486: The French threat was set in motion: a Neapolitan army was to advance through Romagna and attack Milan, while the fleet was to seize Genoa . Both expeditions were badly conducted and failed, and on 8 September Charles VIII crossed the Alps and joined Ludovico il Moro at Milan. The Papal States were in turmoil, and the powerful Colonna faction seized Ostia in the name of France. Charles VIII rapidly advanced southward, and after

4633-504: The Heavenly & Zeus the Protector of Guests" all the way to " Johnny Football & King James". American comic books tend to give epithets to superheroes , such as The Phantom being "The Ghost Who Walks", Superman called "The Man of Steel", and "The Dynamic Duo" Batman and Robin , who are individually known as "The Dark Knight" and "The Boy Wonder". Additionally, epíteto ,

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4746-735: The League at Fornovo and cut his way through them and was back in France by November. Ferdinand II was reinstated at Naples soon afterwards, with Spanish help. The expedition, if it produced no material results, demonstrated the foolishness of the so-called "politics of equilibrium", the Medicean doctrine of preventing one of the Italian principates from overwhelming the rest and uniting them under its hegemony. Charles VIII's belligerence in Italy had made it transparent that

4859-618: The Olympian Gods with Zeus . But in specific cults there may be a different equation, based on one specific aspect of the divinity. Thus, the Greek word Trismegistos ("thrice grand") was first used as a Greek name for the Egyptian god of science and invention, Thoth , later as an epitheton for the Greek Hermes and, finally, the fully equated Roman Mercurius Mercury (both were messenger of

4972-600: The Sacred Books". Rodrigo de Borja's career in the Church began in 1445 at the age of 14 when he was appointed sacristan at the Cathedral of Valencia by his influential uncle, Alfons Cardinal de Borja , who had been appointed a cardinal by Pope Eugene IV the previous year. In 1448, Borja became canon at the cathedrals of Valencia, Barcelona, and Segorbe. His uncle, Cardinal de Borja, persuaded Pope Nicholas V to allow young Borja to perform this role in absentia and receive

5085-513: The Spanish Borgia family, and they resented their power, which they sought for themselves. This is, at least partially, why both Pope Callixtus III and Pope Alexander VI gave powers to family members whom they could trust. In these circumstances, Alexander, feeling more than ever that he could rely only on his own kin, turned his thoughts to further family aggrandizement. He had annulled Lucrezia's marriage to Giovanni Sforza , who had responded to

5198-488: The Spanish cardinals were absent from the conclave and della Rovere's faction had an overwhelming advantage. Della Rovere chose to promote Cardinal Cibo as his preferred candidate, and Cibo wrote to the Borgia faction wanting to strike a deal. Once again, Borgia played kingmaker and conceded to Cardinal Cibo who became Pope Innocent VIII . Again, Borgia retained his position of vice-chancellor, successfully holding this position over

5311-485: The Spanish version of epithet, is commonly used throughout poems in Castilian literature. In many polytheistic religions, such as those of ancient India and Iran (the most ancient of which go back to a common Indo-Iranian period), Greece and Rome, a deity's epithets generally reflected a particular aspect of that god's essence and role, for which their influence may be obtained for a specific occasion: Apollo Musagetes

5424-626: The Spartan Carneian festival . Often the epithet is the result of fusion of the Olympian divinity with an older one. Poseidon Erechtheus and Artemis Orthia reflect intercultural equations of a divinity with an older one that is generally considered its pendan. Thus, most Roman gods and goddesses, especially the Twelve Olympians , had traditional counterparts in Greek, Etruscan, and most other Mediterranean pantheons, such as Jupiter as head of

5537-603: The argument had been stated at length." With persuasion being a key component of rhetoric, it is rational to use epithets. The use of persuasive wording gives leverage to one's arguments. Knowledge along with descriptive words or phrases can be a powerful tool. This is supported in Bryan Short's article when he states, "The New Rhetoric derives its empiricist flavor from a pervasive respect for clarity and directness of language." Rhetoricians use epithets to direct their audience to see their point of view, using verbal forms of imagery as

5650-478: The armsbearer of Aeneas fidus Achates , the epithet being fidus , which means faithful or loyal. Epithets are characteristic of the style of ancient epic poetry , notably in that of Homer or the northern European sagas (see above, as well as epithets in Homer ). When James Joyce uses the phrase "the snot-green sea" he is playing Homer's familiar epithet "the wine-dark sea". The phrase "Discreet Telemachus "

5763-517: The associated income, so that Borja could travel to Rome . While in Rome, Rodrigo Borgia (as his surname was usually spelled in Italian ) studied under Gaspare da Verona, a humanist tutor. He then studied law at Bologna where he graduated, not simply as Doctor of Law , but as "the most eminent and judicious jurisprudent." The election of his uncle, Alfons Cardinal de Borja, as Pope Callixtus III in 1455 enabled Borgia's appointments to other positions in

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5876-485: The benefit of many different poor churches. In the Eastern Churches , the sacristan is known as the ecclesiarch , particularly in monasteries . In large monasteries he may be assigned an assistant known as the paraecclesiarch . An analogous office is that of the skeuophylax . In parishes, however, the sacristan is called sexton . In addition to the tasks and responsibilities mentioned above, if an individual has

5989-462: The birth dates of the four children in comparison with Alexander's known whereabouts preclude him from having fathered any of them. His "acknowledgement" merely consisted of addressing them as "beloved son / daughter" in correspondence (while applying the same address to, e.g., Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in the same letter). Another mistress was the beautiful Giulia Farnese (" Giulia la Bella "), wife of Orsino Orsini . Giulia

6102-597: The bull Inter caetera on 4 May 1493, divided the title between Spain and Portugal along a demarcation line. This became the basis of the Treaty of Tordesillas . Pope Alexander VI made many alliances to secure his position. He sought help from Charles VIII of France (1483–1498), who was allied to Ludovico "il Moro" Sforza (the Moor, so-called because of his swarthy complexion), the de facto Duke of Milan, who needed French support to legitimise his rule. As King Ferdinand I of Naples

6215-403: The butler" and "Richard the bald" are identified with an occupational or a personally descriptive byname. Some of the individuals, such as Richard Basset , made use of what would now be recognized as a surname. The distinction between a byname and a surname is that the byname is not usually heritable, and may change for any given person as his circumstances change. Richard the Bald, for example,

6328-643: The capture of Ostia and the submission of the Francophile cardinals Colonna and Savelli . Then occurred a major domestic tragedy for the house of Borgia. On 14 June, his son the Duke of Gandia , who was lately created Duke of Benevento and had a questionable lifestyle, disappeared; the next day, his corpse was found in the Tiber. Alexander, overwhelmed with grief, shut himself up in Castel Sant'Angelo . He declared that henceforth

6441-594: The cardinal-bishop of Porto. In 1480, the pope legitimized Cesare as a favour to Cardinal Borgia, and in 1482, the pope began to appoint the seven-year-old to church positions, demonstrating Borgia's intention to use his influence to promote his children. Contemporaneously, Borgia continued to add to his list of benefices, becoming the wealthiest cardinal by 1483. He also become Dean of the College of Cardinals in that year. In 1484, Pope Sixtus IV died, necessitating another election for Borgia to manipulate to his advantage. Borgia

6554-423: The cardinals of the French faction, and Giuliano della Rovere. Alexander now feared that Charles might depose him for simony , and that the king would summon a council to nominate a new pope. Alexander was able to win over the bishop of Saint-Malo , who had much influence over the king, by making him a cardinal. Alexander agreed to send Cesare as legate to Naples with the French army; to deliver Cem Sultan , held as

6667-543: The case of Achilles, or "Saturnia" in the case of the goddess Juno in Virgil's Aeneid , is specifically called a patronymic device and is in its own class of epithet. In William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet , epithets are used in the prologue, such as "star-cross'd lovers" and "death-mark'd love." Epithets were in layman's terms glorified nicknames that could be used to represent one's style, artistic nature, or even geographical reference. They originated to simply serve

6780-602: The chancellorship but also with a lucrative abbey benefice and another titular church. In 1460, Pope Pius rebuked Cardinal Borgia for attending a private party which Pius had heard turned into an orgy. Borgia apologized for the incident but denied that there had been an orgy. Pope Pius forgave him, and the true events of the evening remain unknown. In 1462, Rodrigo Borgia had his first son, Pedro Luis, with an unknown mistress. He sent Pedro Luis to grow up in Spain. The following year, Borgia acceded to Pope Pius's call for cardinals to help fund

6893-408: The choir chanted Psalm 118:19–20. The pope knocked on the door three times, workers moved it from the inside, and everyone then crossed the threshold to enter into a period of penance and reconciliation. Thus, Pope Alexander formalized the rite and began a longstanding tradition that is still in practice. Similar ceremonies were held at the other three basilicas. Alexander instituted a special rite for

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7006-576: The closing of a holy door, as well. On the Feast of the Epiphany in 1501, two cardinals began to seal the holy door with two bricks, one silver and one gold. Sampietrini (basilica workers) completed the seal, placing specially-minted coins and medals inside the wall. Of Alexander's many mistresses, one of his favourites was Vannozza dei Cattanei , born in 1442, and who was married to three different men. The relationship began in 1470, and she had four children whom

7119-570: The colonisers' language) before hostilities against them began. They were given the option to accept the authority of the pope and Spanish crown or face being attacked and subjugated. In 1993, the Indigenous Law Institute called on Pope John Paul II to revoke Inter caetera and to make reparation for "this unreasonable historical grief". This was followed by a similar appeal in 1994 by the Parliament of World Religions . A danger now arose in

7232-684: The conclave's master of ceremonies and a leading figure of the papal household under several popes, recorded in his diary that the 1492 conclave was a particularly expensive campaign. Della Rovere was bankrolled to the cost of 200,000 gold ducats by King Charles VIII of France , with another 100,000 supplied by the Republic of Genoa . The leading candidates in the first ballot were Oliviero Carafa of Sforza's party with nine votes, and Giovanni Michiel and Jorge Costa, both of della Rovere's party with seven votes each. Borgia himself gathered seven votes. However, Borgia convinced Sforza to join with his camp through

7345-645: The course of five papacies and four elections. In 1485, Pope Innocent VIII nominated Borgia to become the Archbishop of Seville , a position that King Ferdinand II wanted for his own son. In response, Ferdinand angrily seized the Borgia estates in Aragon and imprisoned Borgia's son Pedro Luis. However, Borgia healed the relationship by turning down this appointment. Pope Innocent, at the urging of his close ally Giuliano della Rovere, decided to declare war against Naples, but Milan, Florence, and Aragon chose to support Naples over

7458-451: The curia was a major scandal. Opponents, such as the powerful Florentine friar Girolamo Savonarola , launched invectives against papal corruption and appealed for a general council to confront the papal abuses. Alexander is reported to have been reduced to laughter when Savonarola's denunciations were related to him. Nevertheless, he appointed Sebastian Maggi to investigate the friar, and he responded on 16 October 1495: We are displeased at

7571-408: The decoration of the church for the different seasons and feasts, the preparation of what is necessary for the various ceremonies, the pregustation in pontifical Mass , the ringing of the church bells, the preservation of order in the church, and the distribution of Masses; finally it suggests that one or two canons be appointed each year to supervise the work of the sacrist and his assistants. In

7684-481: The della Rovere family. As a part of his war opposition, Borgia sought to obstruct an alliance negotiation between the papacy and France. These negotiations were unsuccessful and in July 1486, the pope capitulated and ended the war. In 1488, Borgia's son Pedro Luis died, and Juan Borgia became the new duke of Gandia. In the following year, Borgia hosted the wedding ceremony between Orsino Orsini and Giulia Farnese , and within

7797-695: The disturbed state of affairs in Florence, the more so in that it owes its origin to your preaching. For you predict the future and publicly declare that you do so by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit when you should be reprehending vice and praising virtue ... Prophecies like these should not be made when your charge is to forward peace and concord. Moreover, these are not the time for such teachings, calculated as they are to produce discord even in times of peace let alone in times of trouble. ... Since, however, we have been most happy to learn from certain cardinals and from your letter that you are ready to submit yourself to

7910-417: The early twentieth century, the office was hardly ever attached to a benefice and so usually a salaried position. The Council of Trent desired that according to the old canons, clerics should hold such offices; but in most churches, on account of the difficulty or impossibility of obtaining clerics, laymen perform many of the duties of the sacristan and under-sacristan. In some European medieval contexts,

8023-453: The first holy door in St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Eve 1499, and papal representatives opened the doors in the other three patriarchal basilicas. For this, Pope Alexander had a new opening created in the portico of St. Peter's and commissioned a marble door. Alexander was carried in the sedia gestatoria to St. Peter's. He and his assistants, bearing candles, processed to the holy door, as

8136-504: The gods). Among the Greeks, T.H. Price notes that the nurturing power of Kourotrophos might be invoked in sacrifices and recorded in inscription, without specifically identifying Hera or Demeter . Some epithets were applied to several deities of the same pantheon rather accidentally if they had a common characteristic, or deliberately, emphasizing their blood or other ties. Thus, in pagan Rome, several divinities gods and heroes were given

8249-521: The immediate context nor modeled especially for it. Among other things, they are extremely helpful to fill out a half-verse", Walter Burkert has noted. Some epithets are known by the Latin term epitheton necessarium , as they are required to distinguish the bearers, as an alternative to numbers after a prince's name—such as Richard the Lionheart ( Richard I of England ), or Charles the Fat alongside Charles

8362-429: The interests of the Borgia family in Aragon. Borgia returned to Rome the following year, narrowly surviving a storm that sank a nearby galley that was carrying 200 men of the Borgia household. Back in Rome, Borgia began his affair with Vannozza dei Cattenei which would yield four children: Cesare in 1475, Giovanni in 1474 or 1476, Lucrezia in 1480, and Gioffre in 1482. In 1476, Pope Sixtus appointed Borgia to be

8475-401: The marriage. The couple named Borgia to be the godfather of their first son in recognition of this decision. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella was critical in the unification of Castile and Aragon into Spain. Borgia also negotiated peace between Castile and Aragon and an end to the civil wars in the latter Kingdom, gaining the favour of the future King Ferdinand - who would go on to promote

8588-433: The mill", while another might be described as "John Smith the short". Sacristan A sacristan is an officer charged with care of the sacristy , the church , and their contents. In ancient times, many duties of the sacrist were performed by the doorkeepers ( ostiarii ), and later by the treasurers and mansionarii. The Decretals of Gregory IX speak of the sacristan as if he had an honourable office attached to

8701-611: The moral reform of the Church would be the sole object of his life. Every effort was made to discover the assassin. No conclusive explanation was ever reached, and it may be that the crime was simply as a result of one of the Duke's sexual liaisons. There is no evidence that the Borgias resorted to poisoning, judicial murder, or extortion to fund their schemes and the defense of the Papal States. The only contemporary accusations of poisoning were from some of their servants, extracted under torture by Alexander's bitter enemy Della Rovere, who succeeded him as Pope Julius II . The debased state of

8814-489: The new French king Louis XII entered a secret agreement; in exchange for a bull of divorce between the king and Joan of France (so he could marry Anne of Brittany ) and making Georges d'Amboise (the king's chief advisor) the cardinal of Rouen , Cesare was given the duchy of Valentinois in France (chosen because it was homophonous with his nickname, Valentino, derived from his father's papal epithet Valentinus ("The Valencian ", as seen on his coins denoting his origin in

8927-543: The newly discovered lands in the Americas similar to those Pope Nicholas V had previously conferred on Portugal with the bulls Romanus Pontifex and Dum Diversas . Morales Padron (1979) concludes that these bulls gave power to enslave the natives. Minnich (2010) asserts that this "slave trade" was permitted to facilitate conversions to Christianity. Other historians and Vatican scholars strongly disagree with these accusations and assert that Alexander never gave his approval to

9040-533: The news, he lured Cardinal Orsini to the Vatican and cast him into a dungeon, where he died. His goods were confiscated and many other members of the clan in Rome were arrested, while Alexander's son Goffredo Borgia led an expedition into the Campagna and seized their castles. Thus the two great houses of Orsini and Colonna, who had long fought for predominance in Rome and often flouted the pope's authority, were subjugated and

9153-511: The orator. "It will generally happen, that the Epithets employed by a skillful orator, will be found to be, in fact, so many abridged arguments, the force of which is sufficiently conveyed by a mere hint; e.g., if any one says, 'We ought to take warning from the bloody revolution of France,' the Epithet suggests one of the reasons for our being warned; and that, not less clearly, and more forcibly, than if

9266-483: The papacy had been backed by Ferdinand. Della Rovere fortified himself in his bishopric of Ostia at the Tiber 's mouth as Alexander formed a league against Naples (25 April 1493) and prepared for war. Ferdinand allied himself with Florence , Milan and Venice . He also appealed to Spain for help, but Spain was eager to be on good terms with the papacy to obtain the title to the recently discovered New World . Alexander, in

9379-439: The papal army until he recovered. In 1458, Cardinal Borgia's uncle and greatest benefactor, Pope Callixtus, died. In the papal election of 1458 , Rodrigo Borgia was too young to seek the papacy himself, so he sought to support a cardinal who would maintain him as vice-chancellor. Borgia was one of the deciding votes in the election of Cardinal Piccolomini as Pope Pius II , and the new pope rewarded Borgia not only with maintaining

9492-491: The papal troops sent against them under Guidobaldo da Montefeltro , Duke of Urbino and Giovanni Borgia , Duke of Gandia, at Soriano (January 1497). Peace was made through Venetian mediation, the Orsini paying 50,000 ducats in exchange for their confiscated lands; the Duke of Urbino, whom they had captured, was left by the pope to pay his own ransom. The Orsini remained very powerful, and Pope Alexander VI could count on none but his 3,000 Spanish troops. His only success had been

9605-471: The peace by a marriage between his son Gioffre and Doña Sancha , another granddaughter of Ferdinand I. In order to dominate the College of Cardinals more completely, Alexander, in a move that created much scandal, created 12 new cardinals. Among the new cardinals was his own son Cesare, then only 18 years old. Alessandro Farnese (later Pope Paul III), the brother of one of the Pope's mistresses, Giulia Farnese ,

9718-448: The pope openly acknowledged as his own: Cesare (born 1475), Giovanni , afterwards duke of Gandia (commonly known as Juan, born 1474 or 1476), Lucrezia (born 1480), and Gioffre (Goffredo in Italian, born 1481 or 1482). Rodrigo only legitimized his children after becoming pope. He had pretended that his four children with Vannozza were his niece and nephews and that they were fathered by Vannozza's husbands. G. J. Meyer argued that

9831-457: The pope. Borgia led the opposition within the College of Cardinals to this war, and King Ferdinand rewarded Borgia by making his son Pedro Luis the Duke of Gandia and arranging a marriage between his cousin Maria Enriquez and the new duke. Now, the Borgia family was directly tied to the royal families of Spain and Naples. While Borgia gained the favour of Spain, he stood opposed to the pope and

9944-484: The post of bishop of Valencia. Sixteen days before the death of Pope Innocent VIII , he proposed Valencia as a metropolitan see and became the first archbishop of Valencia. When Rodrigo de Borgia was elected pope as Alexander VI following the death of Innocent VIII, his son Cesare Borgia "inherited" the post as second archbishop of Valencia. The third and the fourth archbishops of Valencia were Juan de Borja and Pedro Luis de Borja , grandnephews of Alexander VI. There

10057-435: The power of the chancellory. Following the election, Borgia fell ill of the plague but recovered. Borgia had two daughters, Isabella (*1467) and Girolama (*1469), with an unknown mistress. He openly acknowledged all three of his children. Pope Paul II died suddenly in 1471. While Borgia had acquired the reputation and wealth to mount a bid for the papacy in this conclave , there were only three non-Italians, making his election

10170-583: The practice of slavery. Other later popes, such as Pope Paul III in Sublimis Deus (1537), Pope Benedict XIV in Immensa Pastorium (1741), and Pope Gregory XVI in his letter In supremo apostolatus (1839), continued to condemn slavery. Thornberry (2002) asserts that Inter caetera was applied in the Spanish Requirement of 1513 , which was read to American Indians (who could not understand

10283-479: The promise of being appointed vice-chancellor as well as bribes that included benefices and perhaps four mule-loads of silver. With Sforza now canvassing for votes, Borgia's election was assured. Borgia was elected on 11 August 1492 and assumed the name of Alexander VI (due to confusion about the status of Pope Alexander V , elected by the Council of Pisa ). Many inhabitants of Rome were happy with their new pope because he

10396-429: The purpose of dealing with names that were hard to pronounce or just unpleasant. It from there went to something that could be very significant assigned by elders or counterparts to represent one's position in the community, or it could be a representation of whomever one wanted to be or thought he was. The elegance of this movement was used throughout history and even modern day, with many examples ranging from "Aphrodite

10509-480: The reproofs of the Church, as becomes a Christian and a religious, we are beginning to think that what you have done has not been done with an evil motive, but from a certain simple-mindedness and a zeal, however misguided, for the Lord's vineyard. Our duty, however, prescribes that we order you, under holy obedience, to cease from public and private preaching until you are able to come to our presence, not under armed escort as

10622-570: The rights of the Spanish crown in the New World following the finds of Christopher Columbus in 1492. During the second Italian war , Alexander VI supported his son Cesare Borgia as a condottiero for the French king. The scope of his foreign policy was to gain the most advantageous terms for his family. Alexander is one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes, partly because he acknowledged fathering several children by his mistresses. As

10735-464: The sacristan's province, such as the vestments and altar vessels, making ready for the priest's Mass. In general, they consist of the payment of yearly dues into a fund for maintenance and repair of accessories used in Church ceremonies, and usually also include a certain amount of labour for this purpose. Altar societies differ from tabernacle societies in that they work for the benefit of the church they are attached to while tabernacle societies work for

10848-536: The saints (e.g., " Pope Saint John Paul the Great , Saint Theophan the Recluse "). " Our Lady of Lourdes " is essentially periphrasis , except where some aspect of the Virgin is invoked. An epithet is an adjective or adjectival phrase that characterizes a place, a thing, or a person that helps make the characteristics of this thing more prominent. These descriptive phrases can be used in a positive or negative way that benefits

10961-459: The shape of a conspiracy by the deposed despots, the Orsini, and of some of Cesare's own condottieri . At first, the papal troops were defeated and things looked bleak for the house of Borgia. But a promise of French help quickly forced the confederates to come to terms. Cesare, by an act of treachery, then seized the ringleaders at Senigallia and put Oliverotto da Fermo and Vitellozzo Vitelli to death (31 December 1502). When Alexander VI heard

11074-444: The suggestion that he was impotent with the unsubstantiated counterclaim that Alexander and Cesare indulged in incestuous relations with Lucrezia, in 1497. Unable to arrange a union between Cesare and the daughter of King Frederick IV of Naples (who had succeeded Ferdinand II the previous year), he induced Frederick by threats to agree to a marriage between the Duke of Bisceglie , a natural son of Alfonso II, and Lucrezia. Alexander and

11187-550: The turbulent cities one by one in his capacity as nominated gonfaloniere (standard bearer) of the church. But the expulsion of the French from Milan and the return of Lodovico Sforza interrupted his conquests, and he returned to Rome early in 1500. In the Jubilee year 1500, Alexander ushered in the custom of opening a holy door on Christmas Eve and closing it on Christmas Day the following year. After consulting with his Master of Ceremonies, Johann Burchard , Pope Alexander VI opened

11300-502: Was Jofré de Borja y Escrivà, making Rodrigo a Borja from his mother and father's side. However, Cesare, Lucrezia and Jofre were known to be of Llançol paternal lineage. G. J. Meyer suggests that Rodrigo would have likely been uncle (from a shared female family member) to the children, and attributes the confusion to attempts to connect Rodrigo as the father of Giovanni (Juan), Cesare , Lucrezia , and Gioffre (Jofré in Valencian ), who were surnamed Llançol i Borja . Peter de Roo gives

11413-408: Was a generous and competent administrator who had served for decades as vice-chancellor. In contrast to the preceding pontificate, Pope Alexander VI adhered initially to strict administration of justice and orderly government. Before long, though, he began endowing his relatives at the Church's and at his neighbours' expense. Cesare Borgia , his son, while a youth of seventeen and a student at Pisa ,

11526-636: Was also among the newly created cardinals. On 25 January 1494, Ferdinand I died and was succeeded by his son Alfonso II (1494–1495). Charles VIII of France now advanced formal claims on the Kingdom of Naples. Alexander authorised him to pass through Rome, ostensibly on a crusade against the Ottoman Empire , without mentioning Naples. But when the French invasion became a reality Pope Alexander VI became alarmed, recognised Alfonso II as king of Naples, and concluded an alliance with him in exchange for various fiefs for his sons (July 1494). A military response to

11639-410: Was bribed with four mule-loads of silver. Mallett shows that Borgia was in the lead from the start and that the rumours of bribery began after the election with the distribution of benefices; Sforza and della Rovere were just as willing and able to bribe as anyone else. The benefices and offices granted to Sforza, moreover, would be worth considerably more than four mule-loads of silver. Johann Burchard ,

11752-400: Was change in the constitution of the College of Cardinals during the course of the 15th century, especially under Sixtus IV and Innocent VIII. Of the 27 cardinals alive in the closing months of the reign of Innocent VIII no fewer than 10 were cardinal-nephews , eight were crown nominees, four were Roman nobles and one other had been given the cardinalate in recompense for his family's service to

11865-501: Was forever intriguing, ready to ally himself with whichever power promised the most advantageous terms at any moment. He offered to help Louis XII on condition that Sicily be given to Cesare, and then offered to help Spain in exchange for Siena , Pisa and Bologna . Cesare was preparing for another expedition in August 1503 when, after he and his father had dined with Cardinal Adriano Castellesi on 6 August, they were taken ill with fever

11978-409: Was joined by Venice. By autumn Louis XII was in Italy expelling Lodovico Sforza from Milan. With French success seemingly assured, the Pope determined to deal drastically with Romagna, which although nominally under papal rule was divided into a number of practically independent lordships on which Venice, Milan, and Florence cast hungry eyes. Cesare, empowered by the support of the French, began to attack

12091-637: Was made Archbishop of Valencia , and Giovanni Borgia inherited the Spanish Dukedom of Gandia , the Borgias' ancestral home in Spain. For the Duke of Gandia and for Gioffre , also known as Goffredo, the Pope proposed to carve fiefs out of the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples . Among the fiefs destined for the duke of Gandia were Cerveteri and Anguillara , lately acquired by Virginio Orsini , head of that powerful house. This policy brought Alexander into conflict with Ferdinand I of Naples as well as with Cardinal della Rovere, whose candidature for

12204-559: Was mother of Laura Orsini , born in 1492, probably daughter of Alexander. However, he still loved Vannozza and his children by her. Caring for them proved the determining factor of his whole career. He lavished vast sums on them. Vannozza lived in the Palace of a late Cardinal, or in a large, palatial villa. The children lived between their mother's home and the Papal Palace itself. Six other children, Girolama , Isabella, Pedro-Luiz , Giovanni

12317-595: Was ordained deacon and created cardinal-deacon of San Nicola in Carcere . Rodrigo Borgia's appointment as cardinal only occurred after Callixtus III asked the cardinals in Rome to create three new positions in the College of Cardinals , two for his nephews Rodrigo and Luis Juan de Milà, and one for the Prince Jaime of Portugal. In 1457, Callixtus III assigned the young Cardinal de Borja (or Borgia in Italian) to go to Ancona as

12430-531: Was ordained deacon and made a cardinal in 1456 after the election of his uncle as Pope Callixtus III , and a year later he became vice-chancellor of the Catholic Church. He proceeded to serve in the Curia under the next four popes, acquiring significant influence and wealth in the process. In 1492, Rodrigo was elected pope, taking the name Alexander VI. Alexander's papal bulls of 1493 confirmed or reconfirmed

12543-455: Was presumably not always bald, and Richard of Brampton may not have always lived at Brampton. The use of bynames did not end with the adoption of surnames. In some cases, before the adoption of middle names, government records, such as taxes lists, included people with both the same given name and the same surname. This led to the use of bynames to further distinguish the person. For example, one "John Smith" might be described as "John Smith of

12656-414: Was threatening to come to the aid of the rightful duke Gian Galeazzo Sforza , the husband of his granddaughter Isabella , Alexander encouraged the French king in his plan for the conquest of Naples. But Alexander, always ready to seize opportunities to aggrandize his family, then adopted a double policy. Through the intervention of the Spanish ambassador, he made peace with Naples in July 1493 and cemented

12769-405: Was wealthy and powerful enough to mount a bid, but he faced competition from Giuliano della Rovere , the late pope's nephew. Della Rovere's faction had the advantage of being incredibly large as Sixtus had appointed many of the cardinals who would participate in the election. Borgia's attempts to gather enough votes included bribery and leveraging his close ties to Naples and Aragon. However, many of

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